My Prehistoric Saga: 2026

Happy new year, everyone! Welcome to part 3 of my series "What did Spinosaurus Look Like." 2025 was filled with new publications concerning Nanotyrannus. Now, I turn my attention back to Spinosaurus. In the last post, I tried to see if Spinosaurus could've been bipedal. However, I ended back to where I started with part 1 of this series. For now, we are at the conclusion that Spinosaurus wasn't a biped. Future evidence could swing my opinion in the opposite direction, but for now this is my conclusion. The hands of Spinosaurus are also interesting. It seems that it didn't have robust manual unguals like the baryonychinae, but smaller and more blade-like claws. Now, I have to move on to another question regarding this animal: what was Spinosaurus' ecology like? In order to answer that, I have to examine three peculiar characteristics on Spinosaurus' skeleton: its nostrils, the thick cross-sections of its bones, and its notorious sail. I might split these discussions into three separate posts, or make one long post discussing all of them. We'll see.

Links:
Part 1:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2023/03/what-did-spinosaurus-look-like-part-1.html
Part 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2025/04/what-did-spinnosaurus-look-like-part-2.html

Part 1: The Nostrils:
1.1. Scholarly Positions:
Let's examine the nostrils. Ibrahim et al., (2014) said that Spinosaurus' nostrils were "small and, unlike any other nonavian dinosaur, is retracted to a posterior position to inhibit the intake of water," (p. 1613).

Spinosaurus skull (Ibrahim et al., 2020a, Figure 129A-B). Scale bar is 40 cm:

Now, Dr. Ibrahim has been a proponent of Spinosaurus being a swimming or semi-aquatic dinosaur (Ibrahim et al., 2014) (Ibrahim et al., 2020b). Alternatively, Hone and Holtz (2021) believed that the retracted nostrils meant that Spinosaurus would have stood out of the water, and put its snout into the water in order to hunt (Discussion: Skull, para. 3; Figure 6A). Spinosaurus would not have swam after prey like an aquatic predator ("Abstract," "Summary" p. 6).

Figure 6 (Hone and Holtz, 2021, Figure 6):

They also said something that I will come back to later. They said that Spinosaurus' "eyes are not dorsally positioned in Spinosaurus compared to many aquatic and semi-aquatic animals. This would suggest that they did not habitually rest submerged in water in this manner and so were less specialized as semi-aquatic animals than taxa such as phytosaurs and crocodylians, and also the pattern seen in cetaceans." They believe that Spinosaurus was closer, ecologically-speaking, to a stork. It put its snout into the water to hunt for prey, but its nose didn't go into the water (Discussion: Skull, para. 3; Figure 7A).

Figure 7:

1.2. My Own Observations:
Now, Hone's and Holtz's argument does sound convincing. If they are right, then Spinosaurus could not have gone into the water (bodily) to hunt. Unfortunately, Spinosaurus' legs are not long like a stork's. Second, Spinosaurus' hind limbs do not seem to be strong enough to support it solitarily. We've discussed this in parts 1-2 of this series already. So, the stork analogy doesn't seem to hold weight. Is there another animal that we could use as an example for Spinosaurus? Recently, I had an idea. I decided to check other aquatic, and semi-aquatic, animals' nasal positions. If they were similar to Spinosaurus', then perhaps their ecology would be similar to Spinosaurus'.

I started with hesperornithiformes first. Now, their nostrils are closer to their eyes (Everhart, 2011, Figure 6):

This is similar to Spinosaurus. However, Bell et al., (2019) said that the "hesperornithiforms rarely shared morphospace with loons and grebes, but more often did share morphospace with cormorants and diving ducks," (Abstract, para. 3). Now, ducks are bipedal. When looking for food, they spend their time swimming on the surface of the water (Wildlife Aid Foundation, Mallard Facts, About, para. 3). So far, this seems to coincide with Hone's and Holtz's position.

Then, I decided to check the marine reptiles. I started with Nothosaurus. It is a weird animal. It had limbs that were adjacent to flippers, but they could still help the creature to move on land. According to Prehistoric Wildlife, Nothosaurus has been compared to seals (Prehistoric Wildlife, Nothosaurus, In Depth, para. 1). When I checked the nostrils, they were closer to their eyes. However, the eyes were directly on top of its head (Diedrich, 2013, Figure 6):

My investigation led me to the plesiosauria. Now, I found something interesting in this clade (or order, if that word is still being used) of animals. On the skull of the pliosaurid Pliosaurus kevani, for example, the nostrils (external naris/en) were close to their eyes. Their eyes are not directly on the top of their heads, but were close to it (Benson et al., 2013, Figure 3):

This matches Spinosaurus' skull more than the Nothosaurus skull did. The polycotylid plesiosauroid Dolichorhynchops had the same nostril, and eye, positions (Testin, 2011, Figures 3-4).

Dolichorhynchops skull in dorsal (first) and ventral (second) views (Testin, 2011, Figure 3):

Dolichorhynchops skull in lateral view (Testin, 2011, Figure 4):

The ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaurs had these characteristics too (Tyborowski et al., 2018, Figures 3 and 6).

Ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur skull in anterior (a) and lateral (b) views (Tyborowski et al., 2018, Figure 6). Blue and red arrows are going into the nostrils:

Now, these are all aquatic reptiles. They lived in the seas, and oceans. However, they all had to breach the surface of the water in order to breathe. Think of episode 3 of Walking with Dinosaurs (BBC), where the ichthyosaur Ophthalmosaurus and the pliosaur Liopleurodon had to go to the surface to breathe. The ichthyosaur is depicted shoving its whole head out of the water, while the pliosaur shoved its snout out of the water. Another example is Dolichorhynchops in the documentary Sea Monsters: A Prehistoric Adventure (National Geographic). A family of them are shown rising to the surface to breathe. They shove their whole heads out of the water.

Ophthalmosaurus breathing (Walking with Dinosaurs, Episode 3: Cruel Sea [BBC]):

Liopleuridon breathing (Walking with Dinosaurs, Episode 3: Cruel Sea [BBC]):

Two baby Dolichorhynchops exposing their whole heads to breathe (Sea Monsters: A Prehistoric Adventure [National Geographic]):

Their mother doing the same thing:

I have a hypothesis. It goes against what Hone and Holtz have already dismissed, but I think it deserves another consideration. Perhaps Spinosaurus did rise to the surface in order to take a breath, and then submerged again? Perhaps it stuck its nose/snout out of the water and kept its eyes under the water, or it shoved its entire head out of the water in order to breathe. Let's consider the first option briefly. If Spinosaurus' nose poked the surface of the water, while its eyes stayed underneath the waves, then it could spot trouble below while exposing itself near the surface. This would be similar to a pliosaur. Spinosaurus shares another similarity with Pliosaurus kevani in having sensory foramen on the tips of their snouts (Ibrahim et al., 2020a, Figure 129A-B) (Benson et al., 2013, Figure 3A). If the latter option is true, then Spinosaurus would've quickly popped its head out of the water and then submerge again. I think any of these options were possible.

For now, I believe that the posterior position of the nostrils on Spinosaurus was similar to the plesiosauria. It could've poked its rostrum out of the water in order to breath while keeping its eyes under the water to spot enemies, or it popped its whole head out briefly in order to breathe. I personally believe that the former method works the best, but I'm keeping both methods as possibilities.

Links:
Everhart (2011):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232680251_Rediscovery_of_the_Hesperornis_regalis_Marsh_1871_Holotype_Locality_Indicates_an_Earlier_Stratigraphic_Occurrence
Bell et al., (2019):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217307149
Wildlife Aid Foundation. Mallard Facts:
https://wildlifeaid.org.uk/wildlife-facts/mallard/?gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=23100753564&gbraid=0AAAAADx5qIuj3oKvW_SjZfZ2vb5q1L4D2&gclid=Cj0KCQiAm9fLBhCQARIsAJoNOcvTOmZCZUT3xYpeLjFC4CFJe8nggE5i0A-OaOHHlyp3TrA1QQI2_HoaAqIiEALw_wcB
Diedrich (2013):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272326359_SHALLOW_MARINE_SAUROPTERYGIAN_REPTILE_BIODIVERSITY_AND_CHANGE_IN_THE_BAD_SULZA_FORMATION_ILLYRIAN_MIDDLE_TRIASSIC_OF_CENTRAL_GERMANY_AND_A_CONTRIBUTION_TO_THE_EVOLUTION_OF_NOTHOSAURUS_IN_THE_GERMANIC_
Prehistoric Wildlife. Nothosaurus:
https://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/nothosaurus/
Bell et al., (2013):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0065989
Testin et al., (2011):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237013001_Dental_Microstructure_in_Polycotylid_Plesiosaurs
Tyborowski et al., (2018):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329895733_Internal_structure_of_ichthyosaur_rostrum_from_the_Upper_Jurassic_of_Poland_with_comments_on_ecomorphological_adaptations_of_ophthalmosaurid_skull

Part 2: Thick Bones:
Aside from its method of locomotion, whether or not Spinosaurus could swim has been a huge debate. Could it pursue prey under the water, or was it a wader like a stork? Now, Hone and Holtz (2021) did not believe that Spinosaurus could chase after prey and keeping itself buoyant in the water (Results: Aquatic Locomotion, para. 13). That's interesting. According to Fabbri et al., (2022), the thick cross-sections of Spinosaurus' bones meant that Spinosaurus was a water-loving dinosaur that dived for food (pp. 854 Figure 1, and 856; Figure 3).

Spinosaurid bone density (Fabbri et al., 2022, p. 854 Figure 1):

This is a good segue for the next part of my hypothesis: Spinosaurus' thick bones helped it to submerge under the water. I do not believe that Spinosaurus chased after prey in the water, but sank to the bottom and waited for prey to come to it. It would use the sensory foramen on its rostrum to locate prey. Then, it probably either opened its jaws and waited for its prey to swim past it, or swung its head towards its prey and tried to catch it with its jaws. The latter is similar to what several genera in the plesiosauria did. Then, Spinosaurus would breach the surface, take a huge gulp of air, and then submerge back under the water.

Support for this also comes from Nothosaurus, the plesiosaur Cryptoclidus, and the ichthyosaur Ichthyosaurus. According to Fabbri et al., (2022), cross-sections of their femora show that they were thick (Figure 1; Extended Data Figure 4). This is just like Spinosaurus (Figure 1; Extended Data Figure 6). This means that all four of these taxa were capable of subaqueous foraging (Abstract; p. 856). That's not surprising for Cryptoclidus or Ichthyosaurus, but it supports my hypothesis that Spinosaurus would've put its whole body in the water in order to hunt.

Cryptoclidus and Ichthyosaurus femoral cross-sections (Fabbri et al., 2022, Extended Data Figure 4):

Spinosaurus cross-section (Extended Data Figure 6):

Even the baryonychinae Baryonyx had a thick cross-section in its femur, more so than its sister taxon Suchomimus. Baryonyx had longer legs than Spinosaurus, yet it probably submerged its body into the water like Spinosaurus. Suchomimus would've been more terrestrial, since its femoral cross-section is more hollow than the other two taxa (p. 854 Figure 1; p. 856).

Quite frankly, I think this picture of Spinosaurus fits the information that we have accumulated from the previous two posts in this series: perhaps Spinosaurus wasn't an underwater pursuit predator, or a wader like a stork; it was an underwater ambush predator.

Links:
Hone and Holtz (2021):
https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2021/3219-the-ecology-of-spinosaurus
Fabbri et al., (2022):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04528-0.epdf?sharing_token=rxUUwyZxDWQ24dJfwtIw89RgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NEFj8DFZa3bazFWKdXldNTvT8T3daJQzYMUbPXaqso6c2KKBgthBeOpsV72_JOZHeSlOxZzzE9wUggHYItKT5ASyn5r0hTiRPfCQi_Cfe9RPf0tvCNFd3T4QXE2UU4r7wR-SYYL4_TSvBiBpniofeQoStgnv6yWzzkL81Gcy2g6hKT9nO8ozsufeY9DwX1VK-Vsw94pFBHTtBWnm2-q0bJ33Xx2cPSUh5t7T-nx3NDvtkT9MSkWBYPTw7aqWM5FRs%3D&tracking_referrer=www.sciencenews.org
-Supplementary Materials:
https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-022-04528-0/MediaObjects/41586_2022_4528_MOESM1_ESM.pdf

Part 3: The Sail.
Oh boy... I have to admit that I didn't want to touch this next subject. For the longest time, Spinosaurus' sail use to be depicted as a semi-circle. In 2014, it was m-shaped and had 13 vertebrae (Ibrahim et al., 2014, Figure 2):

In 2020, Ibrahim et al., (2020b) demonstrated that Spinosaurus had a "fin-like organ" on its tail (Abstract). The fin is connected to the sail (Figure 1; Extended Data Figure 3).

Spinosaurus' 2020 design (Ibrahim et al., 2020b, Figure 1g). Scale bar is 1 meter:

In 2022, Sereno et al. depicted the sail as a semi-circle again (Sereno et al., 2022, Figure 1A):

It had 13 vertebrae still, and so did Suchomimus. It also seems that parts of the neural spines on the dorsal vertebrae, the tips, were not complete. Thus, the complete sail would've been shorter, and a semi-circle (Figure 1):

Stromer (1936) depicts a skeletal reconstruction of Spinosaurus. The neural spines are depicted as not being complete (p. 65):

Ibrahim et al., (2014) probably didn't fix this, or they rearranged some of the sails. I believe that they might've followed Stromer's rearranging of the thoracic (dorsal) vertebrae that he did in 1934 (Stromer, 1934, p. 9):

English translation:

Ibrahim et al., (2020b) showed that some of the neural spines for the neotype were not recovered, and most of those that were recovered were not complete (Extended Data Figure 3):

Either way, Ibrahim and his team got an m-shaped sail. I believe that they were following the order of the vertebrae outlined in Stromer (1934). I think the reconstruction from Stromer (1936) shows that the neural spines of the holotype that were preserved were not entirely complete. We get a better look at this in Stromer (1915; in the Publisher of the Bavarian Academy of Science, 1920) (Vol. 28 Article 3 Table 1 Figures 17-19):

Table 2 Figures 3a-5a:

The dorsal regions of the neural spines are clearly not complete, so their final form would've looked a little different. I think the sail reconstruction in Sereno et al., (2022) is more accurate, so I'm choosing a semi-circle sail for now. I also believe that the total dorsal count for Spinosaurus is 13, which is what Ibrahim et al., (2014) and Sereno et al., (2022) stated.

That being said, what was the sail for? Perhaps it was for display? To expel heat? Heck, did it act like a hump? At first, I looked at surfboards and sailboats. According to Maraih (2023), surfboards have skegs, which are also called fins. The original skeg/fin had a semi-circle shape. It helped the board to not spin out of control, and go in multiple directions on command instead of just forward (Historical Analysis of the Surfboard Fin as it Evolved in [and from] the Hawaiian Islands: Wisconsin Introduces the First Fin, para. 4-5). Essentially, the sail on a sailboat helps to push the boat forward when the wind hits it (Prochazka, 2023, Aerodynamics, hydrodynamics & modern sails, para. 1-3) (American Sailing, Parts of a Sailboat-The Sails, para. 1). In fact, put the two sails of a sailboat (mainsail and jib) together, and it resembles Spinosaurus' sail.

The mainsail and jib of a sailboat's sail (American Sailing, Parts of a Sailboat-The Sails):

Perhaps Spinosaurus' sail was used to help stabilize the animal under the water, but it probably pushed the animal forward too. If so, why would Spinosaurus need to be pushed forward while under the water? Well, there might be an answer.

I've used the sailfish as an example for Spinosaurus before, and now it seems that it is the best example for how Spinosaurus' sail might've worked. Sailfish use their dorsal sail to "corral," and trap, their prey. They do this in a group. Then, they go in for the kill by stabbing their prey with "their elongated bills," (Bliss, 2024, Hunting Strategies: Cooperative Hunting; Feeding Behaviors: Slash and Stun) (Oceana, Marine Life Encyclopedia: Sailfish, para. 2) (NC DEQ, Sailfish: Eating Habits). Perhaps Spinosaurus could've been more mobile underwater than I thought? Maybe it hunted in a pair, or a group? Either way, my hypothesis might need some revisioning. Spinosaurus being an ambush hunter might still work when it hunted large prey, like the Onchopristis or Mawsonia. Still, Spinosaurus using its sail to trap prey is an awesome, and possibly very realistic, idea. Also, notice that the sail on the sailfish looks like the m-shaped sail for Spinosaurus. Interesting.

Sailfish hunting (Bliss, 2024):

I also need to make a quick note about Spinosaurus' tail. Ibrahim et al., (2020b) said that Spinosaurus' tail was used to help propel the animal through the water (p. 69; p. 70 Figure 3). Sereno et al., (2022) denied this, concluding that the tail sail was for display (Introduction: Our approach, para. 4; Results: Axial comparisons to aquatic vertebrates and sail-backed reptiles; Conclusions, number 3). Lacerda et al., (2024) said that a new spinosaurinae femur catalogued as NHMUK PV R 16433, which is similar to the Spinosaurus neotype's, shows attachments for powerful muscles that connect to the tail. Therefore, the tail was probably "robust and strong," as hypothesized by Ibrahim and his team (pp. 21-22). This is interesting because Johnson-Ransom et al., (2024) (Abstract) said that Spinosaurus would've hunted prey in shallow water like a heron (SVP, 2024, pp. 291-292). If Spinosaurus' femur demonstrates that it had muscles in its tail that would've allowed for propulsion underwater, then I think this adds more credence to a Spinosaurus that submerged its body into the water rather than being like a heron. Ibrahim et al., (2020b) showed that Spinosaurus' tail would've been closer in function to a crocodilian's instead of a typical terrestrial theropod's, and was better adapted for "tail-propelled swimming," (p. 60; p. 70 Figure 3b). The sailfish's tail was also used for propulsion (Bliss, 2024, Hunting Strategies: Speed and Agility).

Spinosaurus' tail compared to other animals (Ibrahim et al., 2020b, p. 70 Figure 3):

Links:
Ibrahim et al., (2014):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265553416_Semiaquatic_adaptations_in_a_giant_predatory_dinosaur
Ibrahim et al., (2020b):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2190-3.epdf?sharing_token=wElGAWkXZX3eB14Er_jbUdRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0OcJuFkKXfvVfjOrYF9meV2qCJkOX1x2LjcUMb1Lb5lZ9chhU_Vqfej8-PBfY04xZnY48UXBKYSWhbFemIIs3mnslnJcMCkPcDsf4JmQim7ZWuw7gTuaSQgIH1NES8XsNEAQbuXpuNMgu2T0alEiU1nolCaK6s1p8TvLl3vrvhPiBE9R0sp6pL6T-Jdz-i53gDgBKDkO1M4-gD343aSCj8uA6Wk_OUCrH_JGGWbqhjD9_2bj7JSympkyTP7aZ9BtXc%3D&tracking_referrer=www.sciencenews.org
-V2:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2190-3
Sereno et al., (2022):
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.05.25.493395v1.full
Stromer (1915; in the Publisher of the Bavarian Academy of Science, 1920) (Vol. 28 Article 3):
https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/124817#page/126/mode/1up
-English translation:
http://www.dinochecker.com/papers/Stromers-Egypt-expedition_Spinosaurus_Stromer_1915.pdf
Stromer (1936) (P. 65):
https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Abhandlungen-Akademie-Bayern_NF_33_0001-0102.pdf
Maraih (2023):
https://surfmuseumhawaii.com/2023/12/15/archaeology-of-the-surfboard-fin/
Prochazka (2023):
https://www.boatsetter.com/boating-resources/how-sails-work
American Sailing. Parts of a Sailboat-The Sails:
https://americansailing.com/articles/understanding-sailboats-the-sails/
Oceana. Marine Life Encyclopedia: Sailfish:
https://oceana.org/marine-life/sailfish/
NC DEQ. Sailfish:
https://www.deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/marine-fisheries/public-information-and-education/species-profiles/sailfish
Bliss (2024):
https://www.4ocean.com/blogs/notebook/index-sailfish
Lacerda et al., (2024):

https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/202/2/zlae109/7816073
Johnson-Ransom et al., (2024) (Abstract) (SVP, 2024, pp. 291-292):

https://vertpaleo.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/2024_SVP_Program_Final3.pdf

Conclusion:
Spinosaurus continues to surprise me. From the evidence we've accumulated in this post, Spinosaurus could've been an underwater predator that used its semi-circle-shaped sail to encircle its prey into a trap. Then, it would use its snout to catch its food. It's tail would've been used for propulsion. Concurrently, it probably waited for some of the larger prey to come close to it and grab them. When Spinosaurus needed oxygen, the animal would rise to the surface. Perhaps it stuck its nostrils out of the water only, or its whole head, in order to accomplish this. Then, it would sink below the surface and continue the hunt.

Extra: Belly Scutes?
I came up with this idea on 1/26/26. Sereno et al., (2022) showed that Spinosaurus' hand bones were hollow, so they would not be able to support the animal's weight (Figure 1D; Results: Spinosaurid skeletal models, para. 3; Conclusions, number 4). A part of me believes that the arms, and the cervical vertebrae, used in the 2014 and 2022 reconstructions belong to the baryonychinae Sigilmassasaurus. However, that's a topic for another time. Let's suppose that Sereno et al., (2022) were right. If Spinosaurus couldn't use its hands to support its weight, what would it have done? My answer is belly-sliding. However, wouldn't Spinosaurus' stomach get scratched up if it dragged its belly across the ground? Sereno et al. (2022) also said that Spinosaurus fossils were found inland (Introduction: Our approach, para. 5; Figure 7).

Spinosaurus bones found inland (Sereno et al., 2022, Figure 7):

How would Spinosaurus be able to migrate so far into land without scratching its belly? I believe the answer lies with the crocodilians.

Crocodilians have scales, or scutes, on their ventral sides (Crocodile Specialist Group, The Crocodilian Body, Scales, para. 1). According to Richardson et al., (2002), these scales/scutes may contain osteoderms inside them, but not all crocodilian genera have it in their belly scales (p. 33). Crocs do "sprawling gaits," like the "belly slither" (p. 70), so these scales seem to be great protection for the their torsos. This is where a lot of speculation comes into play, but I must ask the question: could Spinosaurus have had scutes on its belly to protect its underside while belly-sliding? Maybe these scutes even had osteoderms in them? Spinosaurids are known as "croc mimics" (Rayfield et al., 2010, Abstract), so perhaps Spinosaurus had scutes on its belly like a crocodilian? Those scales help crocodilians, who travel across land as well as in the water. I think this makes a lot of sense, so I'm going to run with this for now.

Black Caiman skeleton with dorsal and ventral scales preserved (Ryan Somma, 2012; retrieved from Wikipedia):

(1/28/26) I shouldn't cast out the idea that Spinosaurus could've used its arms to help it traverse across land entirely. In part 1 of this series, we saw traces of Tyrannosaurus lower arm, and even manual digit, impressions. Tyrannosaurus used its lower arms, and feet, to get off of the ground. If that dinosaur could achieve such a feat with those small forelimbs, why can't Spinosaurus? Carpenter (2002) said that most theropods couldn't do "Human-like pronation" with their hands, but they rotated their arms in order to put their palms down. This is similar to a bird gliding (p. 64). Paleontologist Duane Nash hypothesized that Spinosaurus did a "'combat crawl'" by using its lower arms. The fingers would've been "curved inwards," (Nash, 8/16/14, para. 6). I believe that Spinosaurus used its lower arms to help push its body along the ground while belly-sliding. Of course, I believe that its legs would've exerted the most amount of force during the process.

Spinosaurus doing a combat crawl (Nash. 2014):

We now have a clearer picture as to what Spinosaurus probably looked like: a belly-sliding carnivorous theropod that had scutes on its belly to protect its torso from the ground. It probably had a semi-circle-shaped sail. It would submerge its whole body into the water, and use its sail to trap prey. While the prey is cornered, Spinosaurus would stick its snout out and catch its food. It's tail was used for propulsion. When it needed to breathe, Spinosaurus rose to the surface to take a breath. Then, it would submerge under the water again to continue feeding.

Links:
Sereno et al., (2022):
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.05.25.493395v1.full
Crocodile Specialist Group. The Crocodilian Body:
https://www.iucncsg.org/pages/The-Crocodilian-Body.html
Richardson et al., (2002):
-P. 33:
https://books.google.com/books?id=LyIWAQAAIAAJ&q=Epidermal+Osteoderms+crocodile+belly&dq=Epidermal+Osteoderms+crocodile+belly&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwig4cKIr6mSAxVyElkFHYwlLYgQ6AF6BAgJEAE
-P. 70:
https://books.google.com/books?id=LyIWAQAAIAAJ&dq=Crocodile+belly+scales&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=+belly+
Rayfield et al., (2010) (Abstract):
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1671/0272-4634%282007%2927%5B892%3AFMOSCD%5D2.0.CO%3B2
Ryan Somma. Black Caiman skeleton (2012) from Wikipedia:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Black_caiman_skeleton.jpg#mw-jump-to-license
Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Nash (8/16/14):
https://antediluviansalad.blogspot.com/2014/08/did-bakker-get-spinosaurus-right-after.html

My Prehistoric Saga

Tuesday, January 27, 2026

What did Spinosaurus Look Like Part 3: Nostrils, Thick Bones, and Sail.