Giganotosaurus carolinii Holotype Specimen MUCPv-CH 1 (Carmen Funes Municipal Museum):
G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis (MEF Museum):
G. (Mapusaurus) roseae (Nagoya City Science Museum):
Time: 115.469-84.1 million years ago, late Albian-late Santonian of the early Cretaceous period.
Place: South America.
Size: 35-50 feet Feet (10.6-15.3 meters).
Weight: 6.3-8.2+ tons.
Diet: Carnivore.
Skull: 1.498-157.8+ cm.
Type species: G. carolinii.
My Additional Species:
1. G. (Mapusaurus) roseae.
2. G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis.
Let's talk about Giganotosaurus!
Description and Specimens:
Giganotosaurus was a member of the giganotosaurini family, and it was one of the largest carnivorous theropod dinosaurs of all time. In 2004, Mazzetta et al., (2004) gave Giganotosaurus carolinii a weight of 8.2 tons. In 2014, Campione et al., (2014) gave Giganotosaurus carolinii a weight of 6.3 tons. Then ]Snively et al., (2018) gave it 8.0 tons. In 2019, Persons IV et al., (2019) gave MUCPv-CH 1 6.9 tons (6,260 kg). In total, Giganotosaurus carolinii was 6.3-8.3 tons in weight. Blanco and Mazzetta (2001) said that Giganotosaurus carolinii was capable of running up to 14 meters per second, or 31 miles per hour, but Snively et al., (2018) said that it was less agile than Tyrannosaurus but more agile than other theropods (pg. 63). Dececchi et al., (2020) says that theropods over 1000 kg would not be able to run fast, despite their different limb lengths. Instead, they were speed-walkers (Dececchi et al., 2020, "Abstract;" "Discussion," "Getting up to speed" p. 3; "Why tyrannosaurids?" p. 2) (EurekAlert, 2020). They could do this for a long time (The Canadian Press, 2020). The young seem to have been faster ("Results," "Relative leg length" p. 1), and pack-hunting was also suggested to help large theropods take down prey (The Canadian Press, 2020) (Dececchi et al., 2020, "Discussion," "Why tyrannosaurids?" p. 2-3). So as for speed, Giganotosaurus (all three species) may not have been fast runners, but pack-hunting could have helped in taking down prey.
According to Kenneth Carpenter (2002), in most predatory theropods used their mouths first to grab prey first, and then they would grab their prey "in a 'bear hug'" with their hands (pg. 72, "Conclusion"). For Allosaurus, a relative of Giganotosaurus, its arms were relatively long and robust. The range of motion in its arms seems to have allowed it to grab and pull "moderately large prey" towards it. Carpenter says that evidence of Allosaurus using its arms to hunt large sauropods isn't present ("Biomechanical Analysis," pg. 71). Text-figure 9 shows Allosaurus', and other theropod's, range of motion for their hands (pg. 69). Apparently, it can bend its hand quite well outward. Perhaps this was the same for Giganotosaurus. Matt A. White et al., (2015) says that carcharodontosaurid arms were similar to tyrannosaurs, in which they used their jaws to grab their prey first and used their arms to secure it ("Discussion," p. 6). Therefore, it seems that carcharodontosaurids like Giganotosaurus used their hands to help their jaws capture prey mainly. However, their hands might have been able to bend slightly like Allosaurus'.
Carnivorous theropod dinosaurs had enamel in their teeth, so they must have had lips to cover and protect their teeth (Reisz and Larson, 2016, pg. 64-66) (Blake Eligh, 2016) (Mindy Weisberger, 2016) (Emanuela Grinberg, 2016) (Phys, 2016). Therefore, Giganotosaurus would have had lips covering its teeth. Interestingly, dinosaurs couldn't move its tongues (Mindy Weisberger, 2018) (ScienceDaily, 2018).
According to Kenneth Carpenter (2002), in most predatory theropods used their mouths first to grab prey first, and then they would grab their prey "in a 'bear hug'" with their hands (pg. 72, "Conclusion"). For Allosaurus, a relative of Giganotosaurus, its arms were relatively long and robust. The range of motion in its arms seems to have allowed it to grab and pull "moderately large prey" towards it. Carpenter says that evidence of Allosaurus using its arms to hunt large sauropods isn't present ("Biomechanical Analysis," pg. 71). Text-figure 9 shows Allosaurus', and other theropod's, range of motion for their hands (pg. 69). Apparently, it can bend its hand quite well outward. Perhaps this was the same for Giganotosaurus. Matt A. White et al., (2015) says that carcharodontosaurid arms were similar to tyrannosaurs, in which they used their jaws to grab their prey first and used their arms to secure it ("Discussion," p. 6). Therefore, it seems that carcharodontosaurids like Giganotosaurus used their hands to help their jaws capture prey mainly. However, their hands might have been able to bend slightly like Allosaurus'.
Carnivorous theropod dinosaurs had enamel in their teeth, so they must have had lips to cover and protect their teeth (Reisz and Larson, 2016, pg. 64-66) (Blake Eligh, 2016) (Mindy Weisberger, 2016) (Emanuela Grinberg, 2016) (Phys, 2016). Therefore, Giganotosaurus would have had lips covering its teeth. Interestingly, dinosaurs couldn't move its tongues (Mindy Weisberger, 2018) (ScienceDaily, 2018).
Carcharodontosaurus had short arms, similar to tyrannosaurinae (Guinard, 2020, Abstract).
1. MUCPv-CH 1 (Skull from Coria and Salgado, 1995, p. 225 Figure 1) (Scale bars are A: 1 meter, B and C: 10 cm):
Length: 41 feet (12.4 meters).
2. MUCPv-95 (Dentary from Calvo and Coria, 1998, pg. 120 Figure 5):
Length: 43 feet (13.1 meters).
1. MUCPv-CH 1 (Skull from Coria and Salgado, 1995, p. 225 Figure 1) (Scale bars are A: 1 meter, B and C: 10 cm):
2. MUCPv-95 (Dentary from Calvo and Coria, 1998, pg. 120 Figure 5):
Time Period and Species:
Giganotosaurus lived in South America. I consider there to be three species within the genus: G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis, G. carolinii, and G. (Mapusaurus) roseae. G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis
is the oldest member of the giganotosaurini (Novas et al., 2013, pg. 15 Figure 12) (Novas et al., 2015, p. 2). It was discovered in the Cerro Castano Member (115.469-101.4 Ma) of the Cerro Barcino Formation (Krause et al., 2019, pp. 35 and 40, Figures 2 and 6) (Novas et al., 2005, p. 227). The holotype, MPEF-PV 1156, is 35 feet long (10.6 meters). The largest specimen, MPEF -PV 1157, was 42 feet long (12.9 meters).
G. carolinii's is the second oldest species in the genus. It was named after the man R. D. Carolini, who discovered the holotype specimen (Calvo, 1999, pg. 26-27). G. carolinii's fossils were found in the Candeleros Formation (Coria and Salgado, 1995, p. 225). U-Pb, and zircon, dating from Garrido (2010) gives two dates: 97 Ma, plus or minus 3 million years, and 94 Ma (p. 134). In total, this is 100-94 Ma. Dating from Tunik et al., (2010) give a age of 104.3 Ma, plus or minus 2.5 million years, 100.5 Ma, plus or minus 2.1 million years, and 98.6 Ma, plus or minus 2.5 million years (pp. 270-271). In total, this is 106.8-98.4 Ma. Tunik et al.'s dates have been backed up by Krause et al., (2019) (p. 42). U-Pb dating from Di Giullo et al., (2012) give 102 Ma, plus or minus 2 million years, and 100 Ma, plus or minus 8 million years. Some zircon grains give a date of 105 million years (p. 560 "Results"). In total, this gives an age range of 108-92 Ma. In total, the Candeleros Formation is 108-92 Ma. This is middle Albian-early Turonian in age. It seems that G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis and G. carolinii coexisted for a little while, since the Cerro Carcino, and Candeleros, Formations are mostly contemporaneous (both formations are equal in time) (Krause, 2019, p. 42; p. 35 Figure 2; p. 40 Figure 6).
The holotype specimen of G. carolinii, MUCHv-CH 1, is 70% complete (Jorge Orlando Calvo, 1999, p. 26-27), and measures 41 feet (12.4 meters) (Coria and Salgado, 1995, give a length of 12.5 meters, while Coria and Currie, 2002 give a length of 12.0 meters). The holotype's skull was 1.498 meters long, and its femur was 132.5 cm long. A second specimen, MUCPv-95, is based on a dentary (bottom jaw fragment) that measures 59 cm, compared to MUCPv-CH 1's 56-cm dentary. Based on this, MUCPv-95 was 43 feet long (13.1 meters), 5.4% longer than MUCPv-Ch 1. Its skull would have been 1.578 meters long. This makes Giganotosaurus, in total, 41-43 feet long (12.4-13.1 meters).
The third, and latest, species is G. (Mapusaurus) roseae. G. (Mapusaurus) roseae was discovered in the Huincul Formation (Coria and Currie, 2006, "Abstract," p. 74). Up to a minimum of nine individuals were found together in the formation (Bell and Coria, 2013, "Abstract"). Corbella et al., (2004) give a radiometric age of 88 million years, plus or minus 3.9, for the formation, based on a fission-track analysis ("Abstract;" "Characteristics and radiometric age of the tuff bed," p. 229). This gives a full time frame of 91.9-84.1 Ma. The Huincul Formation is overlying (above) the Candeleros Formation (Tunik et al., 2010, pg. 262 Figure 3) (Coria and Salgado, 1995, pg. 226) (Coria and Currie, 2006, pg. 74), which means that it is younger than the Candeleros Formation. I've given an age of 108-92 Ma for the Candeleros Formation, so I'm giving the Huincul Formation an age range of 92-84.1 Ma. This is early Turonian-late Santonian in age. G. (Mapusaurus) roseae was also the largest species of Giganotosaurus, reaching 36-50 feet in length (10.9-15.3 meters).
All three species have a chin/ventral process or flange on their dentaries (Novas et al., 2005, p. 227) (Coria and Currie, 2006, pp. 83-84). All three species have 15 teeth in its dentary, and 2 serrations per 1 mm on its teeth (Novas et al., 2015, pp. 6-7). Both G. carolinii and G. (Mapusaurus) roseae had one pneumatopore/pneumatic foramen on the medial views of their quadrates (Hendrickx et al., 2015, Figure 5 B and C). G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis doesn't seem to have one preserved. All three species have tall dorsal and caudal neural spines (Novas et al., 2015, pp. 13-14, and 17) (Coria and Currie, 2006, pp. 90 and 92) (Coria and Salgado, 1995, p. 225). Coria and Salgado (1995) said that G. carolinii had tall dorsal neural archs (p. 225), but Figure 2 shows what seems to be tall dorsal neural spines as well. All three species also had similarly-shaped ilia (Novas et al., 2005, p. 227 Figure 1) (Coria and Currie, 2006, p. 99 Figure 26). G. carolinii's ilium was damaged (Carrano et al., 2012, p. 235), but it's likely that its ilium was shaped like the other two species'. All three species seem to have similarly-shaped femora, and share a large 4th trochanter (Coria and Salgado, 1995, pp. 225-226) (Coria and Currie, 2006, p. 103) (Novas et al., 2015, p. 22). G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis' autapomorphy (distinguishing characteristic) that separates it from G. carolinii and G. (Mapusaurus) roseae is that three of its teeth had bilobate denticles on its teeth (Novas et al., 2015, p. 8).
All three species have a chin/ventral process or flange on their dentaries (Novas et al., 2005, p. 227) (Coria and Currie, 2006, pp. 83-84). All three species have 15 teeth in its dentary, and 2 serrations per 1 mm on its teeth (Novas et al., 2015, pp. 6-7). Both G. carolinii and G. (Mapusaurus) roseae had one pneumatopore/pneumatic foramen on the medial views of their quadrates (Hendrickx et al., 2015, Figure 5 B and C). G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis doesn't seem to have one preserved. All three species have tall dorsal and caudal neural spines (Novas et al., 2015, pp. 13-14, and 17) (Coria and Currie, 2006, pp. 90 and 92) (Coria and Salgado, 1995, p. 225). Coria and Salgado (1995) said that G. carolinii had tall dorsal neural archs (p. 225), but Figure 2 shows what seems to be tall dorsal neural spines as well. All three species also had similarly-shaped ilia (Novas et al., 2005, p. 227 Figure 1) (Coria and Currie, 2006, p. 99 Figure 26). G. carolinii's ilium was damaged (Carrano et al., 2012, p. 235), but it's likely that its ilium was shaped like the other two species'. All three species seem to have similarly-shaped femora, and share a large 4th trochanter (Coria and Salgado, 1995, pp. 225-226) (Coria and Currie, 2006, p. 103) (Novas et al., 2015, p. 22). G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis' autapomorphy (distinguishing characteristic) that separates it from G. carolinii and G. (Mapusaurus) roseae is that three of its teeth had bilobate denticles on its teeth (Novas et al., 2015, p. 8).
Taurovenator, a carcharodontosaurid that was stated to have lived alongside G. (Mapusaurus) roseae (Motta et al., 2016), is now considered a junior synonym of G. (Mapusaurus) roseae (Coria et al., 2019, Discussion para. 4) (The Theropod Database, "Mapusaurus roseae," "Comments").
Coria et al., 2019 on Taurovenator (Discussion para. 4):
G. (Mapusaurus) roseae Skull (NBC, 2006):
Coria et al., 2019 on Taurovenator (Discussion para. 4):
G. (Mapusaurus) roseae in Chased by Dinosaurs:
Note: In the series, it's called "Giganotosaurus," but it's actually G. (Mapusaurus) roseae. If you're a splitter, then this would be Mapusaurus roseae. For me, this show isn't entirely off in calling this theropod Giganotosaurus, since there's little to differentiate the two species from what I've investigated.
G. (Mapusaurus) roseae in Planet Dinosaur:
Prey:
Giganotosaurus' prey consisted mainly of sauropods. G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis hunted the titanosaurs Chubutisaurus and Ligabuesaurus, and the rebbachisaur Amazonasaurus. It also seems to have hunted the large titanosaur Patagotitan, along with G. carolinii.
G. carolinii hunted the rebbachisaur Limaysaurus, the titanosaurs Andesaurus, MMCH-Pv 47, Patagotitan, MUCPv-251, and MOZ Pv 1221. MUCPv-251, a sauropod that is possibly a titanosaur, and MOZ Pv 1221, a titanosaur from the Candeleros Formation, are unidentified genera. MUCPv-251 could be the same genus as MOZ Pv 1221, or both sauropods might actually be Argentinosaurus.
Giganotosaurus carolinii vs. Andesaurus:
G. (Mapusaurus) carolinii vs. Argentinosaurus (Planet Dinosaur):
Enemies:
G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis' enemies consisted of the ceratosaurid Genyodectes, the spinosaur Irritator (22-24 feet; 6.8-7.3 meters), the tyrannosauroid Santanaraptor, and the abelisaur Spectrovenator.
G. carolinii's enemies consisted of the abelisaur Ekrixinatosaurus (24 feet; 7.2 meters), the dromeosaur Buitreraptor (4 feet; 1.3 meters), and perhaps the spinosaurid Spinosaurus quilombensis (27-55 feet; 8.1-16.8 meters).
G. (Mapusaurus) carolinii's enemies were the abelisaurid Skorpiovenator (15 feet; 4.5 meters), the neovenatorid Gualicho (24 feet; 7.2 meters),and perhaps Spinosaurus quilombensis (27-55 feet; 8.1-16.8 meters), just like G. carolinii did. However, confrontations between G. (Mapusaurus) roseae and Spinosaurus would not have been frequent, due to both predators inhabiting different ecological niches. Spinosaurus would have preferred rivers and fish (Kristen Rogers, 2020, "Competing for food," p. 1), while G. (Mapusaurus) carolinii would have preferred land.
Skorpiovenator in Planet Dinosaur:
Links:
1. Giganotosaurus carolinii:
1. Giganotosaurus carolinii:
Coria and Salgado (1995):
https://vdocuments.mx/a-new-giant-carnivorous-dinosaur-from-the-cretaceous-of-patagonia.html
Jorge Orlando Calvo (1999) (PP. 17-18, 22-24, 26-27, and 41):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284053211_Dinosaurs_and_other_vertebrates_of_the_Lake_Ezequiel_Ramos_Mexia_Area_Neuquen-Patagonia_Argentina
Tu Casu Estu Destino. "Villa el Chocon" (Pg. 1):
http://neuquentur.gob.ar/en/destinations/villa-el-chocon/
Welcome to Argentina. "Carmen Funes Municipal Museum":
https://www.welcomeargentina.com/cutralco-huincul/carmen-funes-municipal-museum.html
https://vdocuments.mx/a-new-giant-carnivorous-dinosaur-from-the-cretaceous-of-patagonia.html
Calvo and Coria (1998):
http://www.arca.museus.ul.pt/ArcaSite/obj/gaia/MNHNL-0000776-MG-DOC-web.PDF
Link 2:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40662857_New_specimen_of_Giganotosaurus_carolinii_Coria_Salgado_1995_supports_it_as_the_largest_theropod_ever_foundJorge Orlando Calvo (1999) (PP. 17-18, 22-24, 26-27, and 41):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284053211_Dinosaurs_and_other_vertebrates_of_the_Lake_Ezequiel_Ramos_Mexia_Area_Neuquen-Patagonia_Argentina
Tu Casu Estu Destino. "Villa el Chocon" (Pg. 1):
http://neuquentur.gob.ar/en/destinations/villa-el-chocon/
Welcome to Argentina. "Carmen Funes Municipal Museum":
https://www.welcomeargentina.com/cutralco-huincul/carmen-funes-municipal-museum.html
Time:
Coria and Salgado (1995) (PP. 225-226):
https://vdocuments.mx/a-new-giant-carnivorous-dinosaur-from-the-cretaceous-of-patagonia.html
https://vdocuments.mx/a-new-giant-carnivorous-dinosaur-from-the-cretaceous-of-patagonia.html
Tunik et al., (2010) ("Abstract;" p. 262 Figure 3; pp. 270-271):
https://www.academia.edu/5642253/Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuqu%C3%A9n_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U_Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
https://www.academia.edu/5642253/Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuqu%C3%A9n_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U_Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2020):
https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
https://stratigraphy.org/news/130
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/giganotosaurus-specimen-sizes.html
Link 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/how-big-was-mucpv-95.html
Link 3:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Weight:
Mazzetta et al., (2004) ("Abstract;" Pages 9-10, 12):
http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/tmp/papers/Mazzetta-et-al_04_SA-dino-body-size.pdf
Campione et al., (2014):
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/2041-210X.12226
Snively et al., (2018) (Table 3):
https://peerj.com/articles/6432/
Link 2:
https://peerj.com/preprints/27021.pdf
Persons IV et al., (2019) (Table 2):
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ar.24118?tracking_action=preview_click&r3_referer=wol&show_checkout=1
Abstract:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ar.24118
Hands:
Kenneth Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Matt A. White et al., (2015) ("Discussion," p. 6):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137709
Lips:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Speed and Agility:
Blanco and Mazzetta (2001):
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app46/app46-193.pdf
Snively et al., (2018):
https://peerj.com/preprints/27021.pdf
Dececchi et al., (2020):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336117841_The_fast_and_the_frugal_Divergent_locomotory_strategies_drive_limb_lengthening_in_theropod_dinosaurs
EurekAlert (2020):
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-05/p-trw051320.php
The Canadian Press (2020):
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/research-says-t-rex-was-built-for-long-distances-not-sprints-1.24134506
Prey:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/giganotosaurus-specimen-sizes.html
Link 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/how-big-was-mucpv-95.html
Link 3:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Weight:
Mazzetta et al., (2004) ("Abstract;" Pages 9-10, 12):
http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/tmp/papers/Mazzetta-et-al_04_SA-dino-body-size.pdf
Campione et al., (2014):
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/2041-210X.12226
Snively et al., (2018) (Table 3):
https://peerj.com/articles/6432/
Link 2:
https://peerj.com/preprints/27021.pdf
Persons IV et al., (2019) (Table 2):
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ar.24118?tracking_action=preview_click&r3_referer=wol&show_checkout=1
Abstract:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ar.24118
Hands:
Kenneth Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Matt A. White et al., (2015) ("Discussion," p. 6):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137709
Lips:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Speed and Agility:
Blanco and Mazzetta (2001):
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app46/app46-193.pdf
Snively et al., (2018):
https://peerj.com/preprints/27021.pdf
Dececchi et al., (2020):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336117841_The_fast_and_the_frugal_Divergent_locomotory_strategies_drive_limb_lengthening_in_theropod_dinosaurs
EurekAlert (2020):
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-05/p-trw051320.php
The Canadian Press (2020):
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/research-says-t-rex-was-built-for-long-distances-not-sprints-1.24134506
Prey:
Limaysaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Andesaurus:
Time:
Mannion and Calvo (2010):
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/163/1/155/2625609
Calvo and Bonaparte (1991):
https://paleoglot.org/files/Calvo&Bonaparte%201991.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Patagotitan:
Time:
Carballido et al., (2017):
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/284/1860/20171219
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
MUCPv-251:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2020/08/a-giant-sauropod-argentinosaurus-from_22.html
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
MOZ Pv 1221:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2021/01/giant-titanosaurs-40-tons-or-more.html
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Enemies:
Ekrixinatosaurus:
Time:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262222847_A_new_Abelisauridae_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_northwest_Patagonia
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Buitreraptor:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app56/app20090127.pdf
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667117300678
2. G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Andesaurus:
Time:
Mannion and Calvo (2010):
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/163/1/155/2625609
Calvo and Bonaparte (1991):
https://paleoglot.org/files/Calvo&Bonaparte%201991.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Patagotitan:
Time:
Carballido et al., (2017):
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/284/1860/20171219
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
MUCPv-251:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2020/08/a-giant-sauropod-argentinosaurus-from_22.html
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
MOZ Pv 1221:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2021/01/giant-titanosaurs-40-tons-or-more.html
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Enemies:
Ekrixinatosaurus:
Time:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262222847_A_new_Abelisauridae_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_northwest_Patagonia
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Buitreraptor:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app56/app20090127.pdf
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667117300678
2. G. (Tyrannotitan) chubutensis:
Skeleton:
MEF Museum. "Cast Production and Design Services for Museums" Catalog:
https://mef.org.ar/pdf/ExhibitsMEF_2019.pdf
Link 2:
https://mef.org.ar/visits/exhibitions/
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Novas et al., (2005) (Pg. 227):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7901883_A_large_Cretaceous_theropod_from_Patagonia_Argentina_and_the_evolution_of_carcharodontosaurids
Benson et al., (2010) (Figure 3):
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Relationships-of-Cretaceous-allosauroids-based-on-the-phylogenetic-analysis-herein_fig3_272152523?_sg=sg8gP3l_KoTmLPM7P9r-Lu_yNk9SC72jXEy7GrKPInaa4D1wqfQQSERNvHNSCGjUX0VdyILWGIKwJYn1Oo3d5w
Full Paper:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26892358_A_new_clade_of_archaic_large-bodied_predatory_dinosaurs_Theropoda_Allosauroidea_that_survived_to_the_latest_Mesozoic
Eddy and Clarke, (2011) (Figure 55):
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phylograms-and-comparisons-of-body-size-optimization-across_fig27_50892373
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3061882/
Novas et al., (2013) (Pg. 11):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259045022_Evolution_of_the_carnivorous_dinosaurs_during_the_Cretaceous_The_evidence_from_Patagonia
https://books.google.com/books?id=OsJQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=Cerro+Castano+member&source=bl&ots=Z80R-QvpzZ&sig=ACfU3U2EnTHODxW1x5MFakQNnmYpM4Knxg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmyOyu5rfqAhXzj3IEHbF0BEQQ6AEwDHoECAwQAQ#v=onepage&q=Cerro%20Castano%20member&f=false
Ezcurra and Novas (2016) (Pg. 146):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305011083_Theropod_dinosaurs_from_Argentina
Tomas et al., (2017) ("Abstract," pg. 2-8):
("Abstract"):
Krause et al., (2019) (P. 35 Figure 2, p. 39 Table 1, p. 40 Figure 6, p. 42):
http://staff.mef.org.ar/images/investigadores/diego_pol/papers/101.pdf
MEF Museum. "Cast Production and Design Services for Museums" Catalog:
https://mef.org.ar/pdf/ExhibitsMEF_2019.pdf
Link 2:
https://mef.org.ar/visits/exhibitions/
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Novas et al., (2005) (Pg. 227):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7901883_A_large_Cretaceous_theropod_from_Patagonia_Argentina_and_the_evolution_of_carcharodontosaurids
Benson et al., (2010) (Figure 3):
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Relationships-of-Cretaceous-allosauroids-based-on-the-phylogenetic-analysis-herein_fig3_272152523?_sg=sg8gP3l_KoTmLPM7P9r-Lu_yNk9SC72jXEy7GrKPInaa4D1wqfQQSERNvHNSCGjUX0VdyILWGIKwJYn1Oo3d5w
Full Paper:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26892358_A_new_clade_of_archaic_large-bodied_predatory_dinosaurs_Theropoda_Allosauroidea_that_survived_to_the_latest_Mesozoic
Eddy and Clarke, (2011) (Figure 55):
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phylograms-and-comparisons-of-body-size-optimization-across_fig27_50892373
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3061882/
Novas et al., (2013) (Pg. 11):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259045022_Evolution_of_the_carnivorous_dinosaurs_during_the_Cretaceous_The_evidence_from_Patagonia
Novas et al., (2015) (Pg. 2):
Khosla and Lucas (2016) (Pg. 104, Table 9):https://books.google.com/books?id=OsJQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=Cerro+Castano+member&source=bl&ots=Z80R-QvpzZ&sig=ACfU3U2EnTHODxW1x5MFakQNnmYpM4Knxg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmyOyu5rfqAhXzj3IEHbF0BEQQ6AEwDHoECAwQAQ#v=onepage&q=Cerro%20Castano%20member&f=false
Ezcurra and Novas (2016) (Pg. 146):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305011083_Theropod_dinosaurs_from_Argentina
Tomas et al., (2017) ("Abstract," pg. 2-8):
("Abstract"):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667117300836
Utricle Definition:
Palomar College. "Botany 115 Terminology: Fruit Terminology Part 3":
https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/termfr3.htm
Merriam Webster. "Utricle":
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/utricle
Link 2:
http://staff.mef.org.ar/images/investigadores/diego_pol/papers/101.pdf
("Abstract"):
Link 2 ("Abstract"):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X19302886
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2019 Version):
http://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2019-05.jpg
Link 2:
http://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
Lips:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Hands:
Kenneth Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Matt A. White et al., (2015) ("Discussion," p. 6):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137709
Speed:
Dececchi et al., (2020):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336117841_The_fast_and_the_frugal_Divergent_locomotory_strategies_drive_limb_lengthening_in_theropod_dinosaurs
EurekAlert (2020):
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-05/p-trw051320.php
The Canadian Press (2020):
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/research-says-t-rex-was-built-for-long-distances-not-sprints-1.24134506
Prey:
Chubutisaurus:
Length:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time:
https://paleoglot.org/files/Bonaparte&Gasparini_79.pdf
Salgado (1993):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290798931_Comments_on_Chubutisaurus_insignis_Del_Corro_Saurischia_Sauropoda
*Weishampel et al., (2004) (Pg. 571):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234025996_Dinosaur_Distribution
Mannion and Calvo (2011) (Table 7):
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/163/1/155/2625609
*Carrano et al., (2012) (Pg. 257-258):
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthew_Carrano/publication/230808558_The_phylogeny_of_Tetanurae_Dinosauria_Theropoda/links/0912f504a5960e5645000000/The-phylogeny-of-Tetanurae-Dinosauria-Theropoda.pdf?origin=publication_detail
*Fossilworks. "Bayo Overo Member" (105.3-99.7 Ma):
http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?action=collectionSearch&formation=Cerro%20Barcino&member=Bayo%20Overo
Ligabuesaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Amazonasaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Enemies:
Genyodectes:
Link 2 ("Abstract"):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X19302886
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2019 Version):
http://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2019-05.jpg
Link 2:
http://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
Lips:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Hands:
Kenneth Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Matt A. White et al., (2015) ("Discussion," p. 6):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137709
Speed:
Dececchi et al., (2020):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336117841_The_fast_and_the_frugal_Divergent_locomotory_strategies_drive_limb_lengthening_in_theropod_dinosaurs
EurekAlert (2020):
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-05/p-trw051320.php
The Canadian Press (2020):
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/research-says-t-rex-was-built-for-long-distances-not-sprints-1.24134506
Prey:
Chubutisaurus:
Length:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time:
***Krause et al., (2019) (P. 37, 40, and 42):
http://staff.mef.org.ar/images/investigadores/diego_pol/papers/101.pdf
Bonaparte and Gasparini (1978):https://paleoglot.org/files/Bonaparte&Gasparini_79.pdf
Salgado (1993):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290798931_Comments_on_Chubutisaurus_insignis_Del_Corro_Saurischia_Sauropoda
*Weishampel et al., (2004) (Pg. 571):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234025996_Dinosaur_Distribution
Mannion and Calvo (2011) (Table 7):
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/163/1/155/2625609
*Carrano et al., (2012) (Pg. 257-258):
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthew_Carrano/publication/230808558_The_phylogeny_of_Tetanurae_Dinosauria_Theropoda/links/0912f504a5960e5645000000/The-phylogeny-of-Tetanurae-Dinosauria-Theropoda.pdf?origin=publication_detail
*Fossilworks. "Bayo Overo Member" (105.3-99.7 Ma):
http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?action=collectionSearch&formation=Cerro%20Barcino&member=Bayo%20Overo
Ligabuesaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Amazonasaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Enemies:
Genyodectes:
Rauhut (2004) (Pg. 895):
Ezcurra and Novas (2016) (Pg. 145-146):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305011083_Theropod_dinosaurs_from_Argentina
Riley Black (2012):
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-is-genyodectes-144686459/
Irritator:
Time:
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019SedG..389..103V/abstract
Rodrigues et al., (2020) ("Abstract"):
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Angaturama is Likely Irritator:
Spent Time in Water:
Kristen Rogers (2020) ("Competing for food," p. 1):
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/29/world/spinosaurus-swimmer-discovery-scn/index.html
Santanaraptor:
Time:
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019SedG..389..103V/abstract
Rodrigues et al., (2020) ("Abstract"):
A Tyrannosauroid:
Delcourt and Grillo (2018) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327509211_Tyrannosauroids_from_the_Southern_Hemisphere_Implications_for_biogeography_evolution_and_taxonomy
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305011083_Theropod_dinosaurs_from_Argentina
Riley Black (2012):
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-is-genyodectes-144686459/
Irritator:
Time:
Custodio et al., (2017) ("Abstract"):
Varejao et al., (2019) (:Abstract"):https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019SedG..389..103V/abstract
Rodrigues et al., (2020) ("Abstract"):
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Angaturama is Likely Irritator:
Dal Sasso et al., (2005) (Pg. 894, Figure 3):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281419012_New_information_on_the_skull_of_the_enigmatic_theropod_Spinosaurus_with_remarks_on_its_size_and_affinities
Sales and Schultz (2017) (Pg. 2-3; 18-21):
Specimen LPP-PV-0042:
Aureliano et al., (2018) (Pg. 4, 8, and 12):
Aureliano et al., (2018) (Pg. 4, 8, and 12):
Figure 8 (Photo):
https://images.app.goo.gl/tsNK65hX5MMTkLoC8Kristen Rogers (2020) ("Competing for food," p. 1):
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/29/world/spinosaurus-swimmer-discovery-scn/index.html
Santanaraptor:
Time:
Custodio et al., (2017) ("Abstract"):
Varejao et al., (2019) (:Abstract"):https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019SedG..389..103V/abstract
Rodrigues et al., (2020) ("Abstract"):
A Tyrannosauroid:
Delcourt and Grillo (2018) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327509211_Tyrannosauroids_from_the_Southern_Hemisphere_Implications_for_biogeography_evolution_and_taxonomy
Spectrovenator:
Zaher et al., (2020):
Link 2:
Supplementary Information:
3. G. (Mapusaurus) roseae:
Original Paper:
Coria and Currie (2006):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228655543_A_new_carcharodontosaurid_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_the_Upper_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
Skeletons:
Nagoya City Science Museum:
http://www.ncsm.city.nagoya.jp/cgi-bin/en/exhibition_guide/exhibit.cgi?id=L210
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/mapusaurus-specimen-sizes.html
Link 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Original Paper:
Coria and Currie (2006):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228655543_A_new_carcharodontosaurid_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_the_Upper_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
Skeletons:
Nagoya City Science Museum:
http://www.ncsm.city.nagoya.jp/cgi-bin/en/exhibition_guide/exhibit.cgi?id=L210
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/mapusaurus-specimen-sizes.html
Link 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time Period:
Coria and Currie (2006) (P. 74):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228655543_A_new_carcharodontosaurid_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_the_Upper_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228655543_A_new_carcharodontosaurid_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_the_Upper_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
Bell and Coria (2013) ("Abstract;" "Introduction," para. 1):
Corbella et al., (2004) ("Abstract;" "Characteristics and radiometric age of the tuff bed," p. 229):
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/H_Leanza/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina/links/0f31753987fde7ee73000000/First-fission-track-age-for-the-dinosaur-bearing-Neuquen-Group-Upper-Cretaceous-Neuquen-Basin-Argentina.pdf
Link 2:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina
Link 2:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina
Coria and Salgado (1995) (P. 226):
https://vdocuments.mx/a-new-giant-carnivorous-dinosaur-from-the-cretaceous-of-patagonia.html
Tunik et al., (2010) (P. 262 Figure 3):
Tunik et al., (2010) (P. 262 Figure 3):
https://www.academia.edu/5642253/Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuqu%C3%A9n_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U_Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2020):
https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/
International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
https://stratigraphy.org/news/130
Nine Individuals:
Bell and Coria (2009) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236925219_Palaeopathological_Survey_of_a_Population_of_Mapusaurus_Theropoda_Carcharodontosauridae_from_the_Late_Cretaceous_Huincul_Formation_Argentina
International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
https://stratigraphy.org/news/130
Nine Individuals:
Bell and Coria (2009) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236925219_Palaeopathological_Survey_of_a_Population_of_Mapusaurus_Theropoda_Carcharodontosauridae_from_the_Late_Cretaceous_Huincul_Formation_Argentina
Lips:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Hands:
Kenneth Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Matt A. White et al., (2015) ("Discussion," p. 6):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137709
Skull:
NBC (2006):
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12356665/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/huge-dinosaurs-roamed-argentina-groups/#.XlQBxraZOu4
Speed:
Dececchi et al., (2020):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336117841_The_fast_and_the_frugal_Divergent_locomotory_strategies_drive_limb_lengthening_in_theropod_dinosaurs
EurekAlert (2020):
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-05/p-trw051320.php
The Canadian Press (2020):
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/research-says-t-rex-was-built-for-long-distances-not-sprints-1.24134506
Taurovenator is G. (Mapusaurus) roseae:
Motta et al., (2016):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304013683_NEW_THEROPOD_FAUNA_FROM_THE_UPPER_CRETACEOUS_HUINCUL_FORMATION_OF_NORTHWESTERN_PATAGONIA_ARGENTINA
The Theropod Database. "Mapusaurus roseae." "Comments":
https://www.theropoddatabase.com/Carnosauria.htm#Mapusaurusroseae
Coria et al., (2019) (Discussion para. 4):
https://www-sciencedirect-com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/science/article/pii/S0195667119303957?via%3Dihub
Date:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337514360_An_Early_Cretaceous_medium-sized_carcharodontosaurid_theropod_Dinosauria_Saurischia_from_the_Mulichinco_Formation_upper_Valanginian_Neuquen_Province_Patagonia_Argentina
Prey:
Argentinosaurus:
Time:
Carballido et al., (2017):
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/284/1860/20171219
Riga et al., (2016):
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19165
Lacovara et al., (2014):
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep06196
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Cathartesaura:
Time:
Gallina and Apesteguia (2005):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262637167_Cathartesaura_anaerobica_gen_et_sp_nov_a_new_rebbachisaurid_Dinosauria_Sauropoda_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Upper_Cretaceous_Rio_Negro_Argentina
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Anabisetia:
Coria and Calvo (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233127594_A_new_iguanodontian_ornithopod_from_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
Enemies:
Skorpiovenator:
Time:
Canale et al., (2009):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23572798_New_carnivorous_dinosaur_from_the_Late_Cretaceous_of_NW_Patagonia_and_the_evolution_of_abelisaurid_theropods
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Gualicho:
Apesteguia et al., (2016):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0157793
Spinosaurus quilombensis:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Hands:
Kenneth Carpenter (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225366451_Forelimb_biomechanics_of_nonavian_theropod_dinosaurs_in_predation
Matt A. White et al., (2015) ("Discussion," p. 6):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137709
Skull:
NBC (2006):
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12356665/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/huge-dinosaurs-roamed-argentina-groups/#.XlQBxraZOu4
Speed:
Dececchi et al., (2020):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336117841_The_fast_and_the_frugal_Divergent_locomotory_strategies_drive_limb_lengthening_in_theropod_dinosaurs
EurekAlert (2020):
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-05/p-trw051320.php
The Canadian Press (2020):
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/research-says-t-rex-was-built-for-long-distances-not-sprints-1.24134506
Taurovenator is G. (Mapusaurus) roseae:
Motta et al., (2016):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304013683_NEW_THEROPOD_FAUNA_FROM_THE_UPPER_CRETACEOUS_HUINCUL_FORMATION_OF_NORTHWESTERN_PATAGONIA_ARGENTINA
The Theropod Database. "Mapusaurus roseae." "Comments":
https://www.theropoddatabase.com/Carnosauria.htm#Mapusaurusroseae
Coria et al., (2019) (Discussion para. 4):
https://www-sciencedirect-com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/science/article/pii/S0195667119303957?via%3Dihub
Date:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337514360_An_Early_Cretaceous_medium-sized_carcharodontosaurid_theropod_Dinosauria_Saurischia_from_the_Mulichinco_Formation_upper_Valanginian_Neuquen_Province_Patagonia_Argentina
Prey:
Argentinosaurus:
Time:
Carballido et al., (2017):
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/284/1860/20171219
Riga et al., (2016):
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19165
Lacovara et al., (2014):
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep06196
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Cathartesaura:
Time:
Gallina and Apesteguia (2005):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262637167_Cathartesaura_anaerobica_gen_et_sp_nov_a_new_rebbachisaurid_Dinosauria_Sauropoda_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Upper_Cretaceous_Rio_Negro_Argentina
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Anabisetia:
Coria and Calvo (2002):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233127594_A_new_iguanodontian_ornithopod_from_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
Enemies:
Skorpiovenator:
Time:
Canale et al., (2009):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23572798_New_carnivorous_dinosaur_from_the_Late_Cretaceous_of_NW_Patagonia_and_the_evolution_of_abelisaurid_theropods
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Gualicho:
Apesteguia et al., (2016):
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0157793
Spinosaurus quilombensis:
Time:
Kellner et al., (2010):
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/aabc/v83n1/v83n1a06.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Spinosaurus?:
Kristen Rogers (2020) ("Competing for food," p. 1):
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/29/world/spinosaurus-swimmer-discovery-scn/index.html
Carcharodontosaur arms:
Guinard (2020) (Abstract):
Kellner et al., (2010):
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/aabc/v83n1/v83n1a06.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Spinosaurus?:
Smyth et al., (2020):
Spent Time in Water:Kristen Rogers (2020) ("Competing for food," p. 1):
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/29/world/spinosaurus-swimmer-discovery-scn/index.html
Carcharodontosaur arms:
Guinard (2020) (Abstract):
