Thursday, December 21, 2017

Dino Bios: Megalneusaurus.

Megalneusaurus:
Time: 164-145 million years ago, Oxfordian-Tithonian of the late Jurassic period.
Place: North America.
Length: 47-52 feet (14.4-15.8 meters).
Skull Length: 272.4-300 cm.
Diet: Carnivore.

This is my favorite pliosaur, but it isn't that well known. So let's talk about it!

Description:
The pliosauroidea were large marine reptiles that were the top predators of their time. Megalneusaurus was one of the largest pliosaurs to have lived. The holotype, UW 4602, and UANL-FCT-R2, the "Monster of Aramberri" specimen, were 52 feet (15.8 meters) long and had skulls that were 300 cm long. Another specimen from Alaska was 47 feet (14.4 meters) long, with a skull that was 272.4 cm long. These large skulls, along with their large bodies, gave large pliosaurs the ability to hunt a variety of prey (Foffa et al., 2014, "Conclusions").

UANL-FCT-R2 ("Monster of Aramberri) Skull (Vengeance from the Deep, "Pliosaur Size"):
Prey:
Megalneusaurus hunted the ichthyosaurs Ophthalmosaurus and Baptanodon, and the plesiosaurs Pantosaurus and Tatenectes.

Megalneusaurus Hunting Ophthalmosaurus:
Links:
Original Papers:
Science (1895):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/2/40/449.1
Knight (1898) (pg. 379):
https://books.google.com/books?id=9FY7AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA380&lpg=PA380&dq=megalneusaurus+centrum+width&source=bl&ots=I0pjh9Mzig&sig=ACfU3U3BIE5eFVswQm7hKyhPl12Ik4AALw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwia8c-ouaTiAhXo1FkKHSNQDNsQ6AEwAnoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=megalneusaurus%20centrum%20width&f=false
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2019/05/size-calculations-for-pliosaurs.html
Time:
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2019 Version):
http://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2019-05.jpg
Link 2:
http://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
Time:
Wahl et al., (2007) ("Abstract"):
https://www.academia.edu/2903720/Rediscovery_of_Wilbur_Knights_Megalneusaurus_rex_site_New_material_from_an_old_pit 
Weems and Blodgett (1996) (Pg. 173-174):
https://books.google.com/books?id=kFdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA173&lpg=PA173&dq=megalneusaurus+humerus&source=bl&ots=2lz_AfTT0e&sig=ACfU3U2SF9blC3VoHyw5BkewmJSKlBjv-Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih6Jfg0vHjAhVsm-AKHQkZBPIQ6AEwBXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=megalneusaurus%20humerus&f=false 
Wilson et al., (2015) ("Abstract"):
https://mrdata.usgs.gov/sim3340/show-sim3340.php?seq=B142&src=UG004_514 
Tropaff et al., (2005) ("Abstract"):
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/117/5-6/570/2164/sedimentology-and-provenance-of-the-upper-jurassic?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Hugh McClean (1979) ("Introduction"):
Ralph W. Imlay (1981) (Pg. 24-28):
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2020):
International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
Locations:
Wyoming:
Wahl et al., (2007):
https://www.academia.edu/2903720/Rediscovery_of_Wilbur_Knights_Megalneusaurus_rex_site_New_material_from_an_old_pit
Wahl et al., (2010):
https://www.academia.edu/2903646/New_material_from_the_type_specimen_of_Megalneusaurus_rex_Reptilia_Sauropterygia_from_the_Jurassic_Sundance_Formation_Wyoming
Alaska:
Weems and Blodgett (1996):
1st Link (pg. 169):
https://ecos.fws.gov/ServCat/DownloadFile/129372?Reference=85097
2nd Link:
https://images.app.goo.gl/YWQcwxWxVgfmqtwE7
3nd Link:
https://data.doi.gov/dataset/the-pliosaurid-megalneusaurus-a-newly-recognized-occurrence-in-the-upper-jurassic-naknek-f
Mexico:
Buchy et al., (2003):
Buchy (2007) (pg. 36-40):
Bite Force:
Foffa et al., (2014) ("Conclusions"):

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joa.12200

Prey:

Wahl et al., (2007) (pg. 94):
O'Keefe et al., (2009):
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627139?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Pliosauroidea:
Weems and Blodgett (1996) (pg. 170):
Pliosaur Physical Description:
"A New Species of Pliosaur Was Found on Volga." National Geographic. 2016:
Skull Picture:
Vengeance from the Deep. "Pliosaur Size":

Friday, November 24, 2017

Dino Bios: Carnotaurus.

Carnotaurus:
Carnotaurus' 2021 redesign based on skin impressions (Phys, 2021):
Time: 72.1-66 million years ago, Maastrichtian of the late Cretaceous period (possibly longer).
Place: South America.
Size: 32 feet (9.6 meters).
Diet: Carnivore.

Let's talk about my second favorite dinosaur: Carnotaurus!

Description:
Carnotaurus is an abelisaurid from Patagonia, South America (Bonaparte et al., 1990, "Abstract") (Ezcurra and Novas, 2016, pg. 150). It lived 72-66 million years ago (Ezcurra and Novas, 2016, p. 150) (Rafael Delcourt, 2018, Figure 1) (Leanza et al., 2004, p. 71), but it has been suggested to have lived possibly from the Campanian-Maastrichtian periods (83.6-72.1 million years ago) (Hendrickx and Bell, 2021, Materials and methods, para. 2). It was originally thought that Carnotaurus was discovered in the Gorro Frillo Formation (Bonaparte et al., 1990, "Abstract"), but now it is considered to have come from the La Colonia Formation (Ezcurra and Novas, 2016, p. 150) (Hendrickx and Bell, 2021, Materials and methods, para. 2). 

Carnotaurus was 32 feet (9.6 meters) in length. It had a relatively big head with two horns above its eyes. It had arms and hands smaller than T. rex! It's arms also supported four-fingered hands. It supported two horns on the top of its eyes that faced forward.

Carnivorous theropod dinosaurs had enamel in their teeth, so they must have had lips to cover and protect their teeth (Reisz and Larson, 2016, pg. 64-66) (Blake Eligh, 2016) (Mindy Weisberger, 2016) (Emanuela Grinberg, 2016) (Phys, 2016). Therefore, Carnotaurus would have had lips covering its teeth. Interestingly, dinosaurs couldn't move its tongues (Mindy Weisberger, 2018) (ScienceDaily, 2018).

Prey:
Dinosaurs that were on the menu for Carnotaurus were the titanosaurs Saltasaurus (28-46 feet; 8.4-13.9 meters), Argyrosaurus (78 feet; 23.8 meters), and Puertasaurus; and the ornithopod Willinakaqe (24-25 feet; 7.2-7.7 meters).

Willinakaqe (Valieri et al., 2010) (Figure 2):
Top Predator:
Carnotaurus was an abelisaur, and was the top predator of its environment. The abelisaurs were subordinate to the carcharodontosaur family for most of the Cretaceous period. This is evident with Ekrixinatosaurus and Skorpiovenator being overpowered Giganotosaurus carolinii and G. (Mapusaurus) roseae. Rugops was subordinate to Carcharodontosaurus saharicus. When the carcharodontosaurs died out, the abelisaurs rose to power. This happened at the end of the Santonian. when the Campanian period began, the abelisaurs became the top predators.

Dinosaur (2000):
Carnotaurus from Dinosaur:
Carnotaurus was the main villain for one of my favorite childhood movies, Dinosaur. Originally, it was going to be T. rex, but it was changed to Carnotaurus (Donald R. Prothero, 2016, pg. 19). This explains why Carnotsaurus was so large in the film, compared to what it was in real life. Without this movie, I would have never known, or heard, of CarnotaurusCarnotaurus hunts Aladar, and Iguanodon, in the film. Carnotaurus didn't hunt Iguanodon, since Iguanodon lived in Europe and in the early Cretaceous, but it probably hunted Willinakaqe.

Links:
Original Paper:
Bonaparte et al., (1990):
2021 Redesign:
Phys (2021):
https://phys.org/news/2021-09-scientists-reveal-fossilised-skin-bull-like.html
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Ezcurra and Novas (2016) (P. 150):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305011083_Theropod_dinosaurs_from_Argentina
Rafael Delcourt (2018) (Figure 1):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-28154-x
Hendrickx and Bell (2021) (Materials and methods, para. 2):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667121002421
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2020):
https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/
International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
https://stratigraphy.org/news/130
Dinosaur Movie Info:
Donald R. Prothero (2016) (Pg. 19):
https://books.google.com/books?id=y79nCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&lpg=PA28&dq=carcharodontosaurus+12+to+13+meters&source=bl&ots=mQcnd67tpi&sig=Litfa9DQ_hD2JEakHd2_CWX163M&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiW_sOf4P7dAhXErFkKHQGSA7oQ6AEwHnoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=carnotaurus&f=false
Lips:
Reisz and Larson (2016) (Pg. 64-66):
https://cansvp.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/csvp-2016-abstract-book-compressed.pdf
Blake Eligh (2016):
https://www.utoronto.ca/news/did-dinosaurs-have-lips-ask-university-toronto-paleontologist
Mindy Weisberger (2016):
https://www.livescience.com/54912-did-t-rex-have-lips.html
Emanuela Grinberg (2016):
https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/world/dinosaur-lips-teeth-study/index.html
Phys (2016):
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-dinosaurs-lips.html
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Strong Neck:
Ariel H. Mendez (2012):
https://bioone.org/journals/acta-palaeontologica-polonica/volume-59/issue-3/app.2011.0129/The-Cervical-Vertebrae-of-the-Late-Cretaceous-Abelisaurid-Dinosaur-Carnotaurus/10.4202/app.2011.0129.full
Riley Black (2012):
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/carnotaurus-had-a-hefty-neck-24787083/
Other Papers:
Skull Info.:
Cerroni et al., (2021) (Supplementary Materials):
https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/The_skull_of_i_Carnotaurus_sastrei_i_Bonaparte_1985_revisited_insights_from_craniofacial_bones_palate_and_lower_jaw/12848981?file=24407432
Prey:
Saltasaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Zurriaguz and Powell (2015) (Pg. 284):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271854004_New_contributions_to_the_presacral_osteology_of_Saltasaurus_loricatus_Sauropoda_Titanosauria_from_the_Upper_Cretaceous_of_northern_Argentina
Argyrosaurus
Length:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time:
Mannion and Otero (2012) (Pg. 616):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235635155_A_Reappraisal_of_the_Late_Cretaceous_Argentinean_Sauropod_Dinosaur_Argyrosaurus_superbus_with_a_Description_of_a_New_Titanosaur_Genus
Casal et al., (2016) (Spanish) ("Abstract," Pg. 59 "Age of the Lago Colhue Huapi Formation"/"Edad de la Formacion Lago Colhue Huapi"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303598984_Ordenamiento_y_caracterizacion_faunistica_del_Cretacico_Superior_del_Grupo_Chubut_Cuenca_del_Golfo_San_Jorge_Argentina
English Version:
https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Ytyd4o1h6aEJ:https://doi.org/10.4072/rbp.2016.1.05+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us
Vallati et al., (2016) ("Abstract"):
https://app.dimensions.ai/details/publication/pub.1006664406
Lamanna et al., (2019) ("Abstract"):
https://bioone.org/journals/Annals-of-Carnegie-Museum/volume-85/issue-3/007.085.0301/A-New-Peirosaurid-Crocodyliform-from-the-Upper-Cretaceous-Lago-Colhu%c3%a9/10.2992/007.085.0301.short
Ibiricu et al., (2019) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337834456_New_materials_and_an_overview_of_Cretaceous_vertebrates_from_the_Chubut_Group_of_the_Golfo_San_Jorge_Basin_central_Patagonia_Argentina
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time:
Leanza et al., (2004) (Pg. 71):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257047651_Cretaceous_terrestrial_beds_from_the_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina_and_their_tetrapod_assemblages
Valieri et al., (2010) (Pg. 219-220):
https://web.archive.org/web/20110903014352/http://www.macn.secyt.gov.ar/investigacion/descargas/publicaciones/revista/12/rns_vol12-2_217-231.pdf
Link 2:
http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1853-04002010000200006
Garcia and Salgado (2013) ("Location and geological setting"):
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app58/app20110055.pdf
Ezcurra and Novas (2016) (Pg. 150):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305011083_Theropod_dinosaurs_from_Argentina

Monday, November 20, 2017

Dino Bios: Argentinosaurus.

Argentinosaurus (Dinosaurs: Giants of Patagonia):
Time: 113-86 million years ago, Albian-Coniacian of the late Cretaceous period.
Place: South America.
Size: 170 feet (51.8 meters).
Weight: 70-71 tons.
Diet: Herbivore.

Let's talk about Argentinosaurus!

Description:
Argentinosaurus lived during the Albian-Coniacian period, 113-86 million years ago, in South America. It was discovered in the Huincul Formation (Bonaparte and Coria, 1993, pg. 3), and possibly the Candeleros Formation (Calvo, 1999, pg. 26). Microflora collected in the Huincul Formation by Vallati (2001) ("Abstract") (List of Microflora), Vallati (2006) ("Abstract"), Musacchio and Vallati (2007) ("Introduction"), and Vallati (2013) ("Paleotropical representatives in Northern Patagonia" 1-1.2, "Conclusions"), date to the Albian-Cenomanian. A list of microflora from Vallati (2013): 
Elateroplicites africaensisGaleacornea, Fraxinoipollenites fragilis, and Cretacaeiporites scabratus, are all Albian in age (at best) (pg. 275-278) (Laboratory of Paleobotany, "Elateroplicites africaensis") (Fossilworks, "Elateroplicites africaensis") (Fossilworks, "Galeacornea") (Fossilworks, 
"Fraxinoipollenites fragilis") (Laboratory of Paleobotany, "Fraxinoipollenites fragilis") (Laboratory of Paleobotany, "Cretacaeiporites scabratus") (Fossilworks, "Cretacaeiporites scabratus"), but 
Elateroplicites africaensis also extends to the Campanian (Fossilworks, "Elateroplicites africaensis"), and Galeacornea and Cretacaeiporites scabratus extend to the Coniacian (Fossilworks, "Galeacornea") 
(Fossilworks, "Cretacaeiporites scabratus")Equisetosporites cf. evidens comes from the Cenomanian 
(Fossilworks, "Equisetosporites evidens")Corbella et al., (2004) give a radiometric age of 88 million years for the Huincul Formation, based on a fission-track analysis ("Abstract," "Characteristics and radiometric age of the tuff bed" pg. 229). The formation has also been given a date of 93-91 million years old (Garrido, 2010, pg. 138). This is the Turonian period.  Therefore, the Huincul Formation is Albian-Coniacian in age.

The specimen MUCPv-251 was discovered in the Candeleros Formation (Calvo, 1999, pg. 26) Palynomorphs and calcareous microfossils can help prove how old a formation, or member of a formation, is (Turner and Peterson, 1999, pg. 89-90) (Marjanovic and Laurin, 2014, pg. 2) (Dinosaur National Monument, "Rhadinosteus parvus"). Avitabatrachus, a prehistoric frog (microfossil), was discovered in the Candeleros Formation. It has been dated from the Albian (Baez et al., 2000, pg. 491, "Geological Setting") to the Cenomanian (David Cannatella, 2015, "Temporal Data: Ages of Fossils and Calibration Priors," p. 20). U-Pb dating from Tunik et al., (2010) give an age of 104-88 million years for the Candeleros Formation (pg. 270-271). U-Pb dating from Di Giullo et al., (2012) give 102-100 million years (pg. 600 "Results"). The formation has also been dated to being 97-94 million years old (Garrido, 2010, pg. 134) (Halupczok et al., 2017, "Geological setting" pg. 2). This is Cenomanian in age. Therefore, the Candeleros Formation is Albian-Coniacian in age.

Argentinosaurus was 170 feet long (51.8 meters). The specimens PVPH-1 (holotype), and 
MLP-DP 46-VIII-21-3, were both 170 feet long (51.8 meters). The possible (?)Argentinosaurus specimen MUCPv-251 is 181 feet long (55.0 meters). MUCPv-251 is described as an unknown sauropod (Calvo, 1999, pg. 26), but the size of the bones seems to suggest that it was a titanosaur. In fact, Calvo (1999) thinks that the specimen might be related to Argentinosaurus. Since Argentinosaurus is the largest titanosaur from South America, and MUCPv-251 seems to have been larger than the other two specimens of Argentinosaurus, it's extremely possible that MUCPv-251 is Argentinosaurus. Another titanosaur, catalogued as MOZ Pv 1221, was discovered in the Candeleros Formation in 2021. It's 170 feet long (51.7 meters), which is basically the same size as the two Argentinosaurus specimens. Given it's size, it could be Argentinosaurus, but both MOZ and the two Argentinosaurus specimens are too fragmentary to tell for sure.

Otero et al., (2021) on whether or not MOZ Pv 1221 is Argentinosaurus or not ("Discussion" para. 4):
There might be hope yet that MOZ is Argentinosaurus, and that Argentinosaurus coexisted with Giganotosaurus. However, that question will have to remain open.



Mazzetta et al., (2004) gave Argentinosaurus a mass of 71 tons (pg. 7). Paul (2019) gave is 70 (pg. 339 Table 1).

On October 10, 2019, it was announced that sauropod dinosaurs would have had rhamphotheca, or a beak-like structure made of keratin. This beak would have protected the sauropod's teeth and kept them in place, since fossilized sauropod teeth are usually found in good condition and connected to their skulls (John Pickrell, 10/10/19) (Pickrell, 10/17/19). Interestingly, dinosaurs couldn't move their tongues (Mindy Weisberger, 2018) (ScienceDaily, 2018).

Friends:
Argentinosaurus coexisted with the rebbachisaurs Limaysaurus (57-63 feet; 17.4-19.1 meters) and Cathartesaura (55 feet; 16.7 meters), the titanosaurs Andesaurus (52 feet; 15.7 meters), MMCH-Pv 47 (71 feet; 21.7 meters), Patagotitan (78-79 feet; 23.9-24.1 meters), and Puertasaurus (74-81 feet; 22.4-24.8 meters). Other animals on the menu were the ornithopods Anabisetia, Talenkauen, and Macrogryphosaurus.

Predators:
Argentinosaurus' enemies consisted of Giganotosaurus (36-50 feet; 10.9-15.3 meters), the abelisaurs Ekrixinatosaurus (24 feet; 7.2 meters) and Skorpiovenator (15 feet; 4.5 meters), the dromeosaurs Buitreraptor (4 feet; 1.3 meters) and Unenlagia (8-9 feet; 2.3-2.8 meters), the neovenatorid Gualicho (24 feet; 7.2 meters), and perhaps Spinosaurus (27-55 feet; 8.1-16.8 meters). However, Spinosaurus would have preferred rivers and fish (Kristen Rogers, 2020, "Competing for food," p. 1).

Mapusaurus vs. Argentinosaurus (Planet Dinosaur):
Links:
Original Paper:
Bonaparte and Coria (1993):
http://paleoglot.org/files/Bonaparte&Coria_93.pdf 
Spanish:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281378504_A_new_and_huge_titanosaur_sauropod_from_Rio_Limay_Formation_Albian-Cenomanian_of_Neuquen_Province_Argentina
Time: 
Huincul Formation:
Vallati (2001) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241723727_Middle_Cretaceous_microflora_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Dinosaurian_Beds_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
List of Microflora:
https://paleobotany.ru/palynodata/publication/21442?dir=asc&order=NameSp&page=1
Vallati (2006) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240841718_Las_primeras_angiospermas_en_el_Cretacico_de_la_Cuenca_Neuquina_centro_oeste_de_Argentina_Aspectos_geologicos_relacionados
Musacchio and Vallati (2007) ("Introduction"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267692115_Late_Cretaceous_non_marine_microfossils_of_the_Plottier_Formation_Cretaceous_at_Zampal_Argentina
Link 2:
https://www.academia.edu/7770746/LATE_CRETACEOUS_NON_MARINE_MICROFOSSILS_OF_THE_PLOTTIER_FORMATION_CRETACEOUS_AT_ZAMPAL_ARGENTINA._E._Musacchio_and_P._Vallati_2007
Vallati (2013) (Pg. 275-278) ("Paleotropical representatives in Northern Patagonia" 1-1.2, "Conclusions"):
http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2013_L05/
Link 2:

http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/51218/CG2013_L05.pdf?sequence=1

Elateroplicites africaensis:

Laboratory of Paleobotany. "Elateroplicites africaensis." (Definitely Albian [7], but up to Cenomanian [4], and Turonian [2]): 

https://paleobotany.ru/palynodata/species/91930

Fossilworks"Elateroplicites africaensis." (Albian-Campanian): 

http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=252717

Galeacornea:

Fossilworks. "Galeacornea" (Albian-Coniacian): 

http://fossilworks.org/?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=252563

Fraxinoipollenites fragilis: 

Fossilworks. "Fraxinoipollenites fragilis." (Albian-Cenomanian): 

http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=276463

Laboratory of Paleobotany"Fraxinoipollenites fragilis." (Albian-Cenomanian for all of South America): 
https://paleobotany.ru/palynodata/species/23110

Cretacaeiporites scabratus:

Laboratory of Paleobotany"Cretacaeiporites scabratus." (Definitely Albian [6], but up to Cenomanian at most [3]): 

https://paleobotany.ru/palynodata/species/51473

Fossilworks"Cretacaeiporites scabratus." (Albian-Coniacian): 
http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=276456
Equisetosporites cf. evidens:

Fossilworks. "Equisetosporites evidens." (Cenomanian): 

http://fossilworks.org/?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=276460 

Corbella et al., (2004) ("Abstract," "Characteristics and radiometric age of the tuff bed" pg. 229):
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/H_Leanza/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina/links/0f31753987fde7ee73000000/First-fission-track-age-for-the-dinosaur-bearing-Neuquen-Group-Upper-Cretaceous-Neuquen-Basin-Argentina.pdf
Link 2:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina
Garrido (2010) (Pg. 138):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262658711_Estratigrafia_del_Grupo_Neuquen_Cretacico_Superior_de_la_Cuenca_Neuquina_Argentina_nueva_propuesta_de_ordenamiento_litoestratigrafico
Using Microflora Dating for Formations:
Turner and Peterson (1999) ("Age," pg. 89-90):
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qeRM16ndBx4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA77&ots=W5Kj88zd2x&sig=CZ76lISv4Bbi3BXBoWcGMHGg124#v=onepage&q&f=false
Marjanovic and Laurin (2014) (Pg. 2):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260075695_69_Marja_Laurin_App_comp
Dinosaur National Monument ("Rhadinosteus parvus"):
https://www.nps.gov/dino/learn/nature/rhadinosteus-parvus.htm
Villa el Chocon in Candeleros and Huincul Formations:
Simon et al., (2017) ("Abstract," pg. 3):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318931668_A_New_Titanosaur_Sauropod_from_the_Upper_Cretaceous_of_Patagonia_NeuqueN_Province_Argentina
Other Dinosaurs from Candeleros and Huincul Formations:
Calvo (1999):
Casal et al., (2009) ("Abstract," "Introduction" p. 1, pg. 556-558):
Casal et al., (2016) (Pg. 56 "Edad de la Formacion Bajo Barreal," pg. 57):
Candeleros Formation:
Baez et al., (2000) (Pg. 491, "Geological Setting"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312503089_The_earliest_known_pipoid_frog_from_South_America_A_new_genus_from_the_Middle_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
David Cannatella (2015) ("Temporal Data: Ages of Fossils and Calibration Priors," p. 20):
https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/438910
Tunik et al., (2010) ("Abstract;" pg. 270):
https://www.academia.edu/5642253/Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuqu%C3%A9n_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U_Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Di Giullo et al., (2012) (Pg. 600 "Results"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233851583_Detrital_zircon_provenance_from_the_Neuquen_Basin_south-central_Andes_Cretaceous_geodynamic_evolution_and_sedimentary_response_in_a_retroarc-foreland_basin
Garrido (2010) (Pg. 134):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262658711_Estratigrafia_del_Grupo_Neuquen_Cretacico_Superior_de_la_Cuenca_Neuquina_Argentina_nueva_propuesta_de_ordenamiento_litoestratigrafico
Halupczok et al., (2017) ("Geological setting" pg. 2):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321247624_Dinosaur_tracks_in_the_Kokorkom_Desert_Candeleros_Formation_Cenomanian_Upper_Cretaceous_Patagonia_Argentina_Implications_for_deformation_structures_in_dune_fields
International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2020):
https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/
International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
https://stratigraphy.org/news/130
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
John Pickrell (10/10/19):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/10/giant-sauropod-dinosaurs-may-have-sported-turtlelike-beaks
John Pickrell (10/17/19):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/10/sauropods-grew-big-munching-superfoods-sturdy-beaks
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Weight:
Mazzetta et al., (2004) (pg. 7):
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.694.1650&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Paul (2019) (Pg. 339 Table 1):
http://www.gspauldino.com/Titanomass.pdf
Friends:
Limaysaurus:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time and Discovery:
Calvo and Salgado, (1995):
2nd Version:
Cathartesaura:
Time:
Gallina and Apesteguia (2005):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262637167_Cathartesaura_anaerobica_gen_et_sp_nov_a_new_rebbachisaurid_Dinosauria_Sauropoda_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Upper_Cretaceous_Rio_Negro_Argentina
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Andesaurus:
Time:
Casal et al., (2016) (Pg. 56 "Edad de la Formacion Bajo Barreal," pg. 57):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303598984_Ordenamiento_y_caracterizacion_faunistica_del_Cretacico_Superior_del_Grupo_Chubut_Cuenca_del_Golfo_San_Jorge_Argentina
Mannion and Calvo (2010):
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/163/1/155/2625609
Calvo and Bonaparte (1991):
https://paleoglot.org/files/Calvo&Bonaparte%201991.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Patagotitan:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/11/patagotitan-dino-bios.html
Puertasaurus:
Length:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time:
Pari Aike Formation is Mata Amarilla Formation:
Egerton (2011) (Pg. 52-53):
Link 2:
Varela et al., (2012) ("Abstract"):
Link 2:
Rozadilla et al., (2019) ("Abstract"):
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14772019.2019.1582562?journalCode=tjsp20
Anabisetia:
Coria and Calvo (2002) (Pg. 503):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233127594_A_new_iguanodontian_ornithopod_from_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
Vallati (2002) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287718853_Palynology_of_the_Cerro_Lisandro_Formation_lower_Dinosaurian_Beds_middle_Cretaceous_of_the_Neuquen_Basin_west-central_Argentina
Talenkauen: 
Pari Aike Formation is Mata Amarilla Formation:
Egerton (2011) (Pg. 52-53):
Link 2:
Varela et al., (2012) ("Abstract"):
Link 2:
Rozadilla et al., (2019) ("Abstract"):
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14772019.2019.1582562?journalCode=tjsp20
Macrogryphosaurus:
Time:
Coniacian:
Calvo et al., (2007):
https://www.academia.edu/7111445/DISCOVERY_OF_A_NEW_ORNITHOPOD_DINOSAUR_FROM_THE_PORTEZUELO_FORMATION_UPPER_CRETACEOUS_NEUQU%C3%89N_PATAGONIA_ARGENTINA_1_With_14_figures
Date of Publication:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233735488_Discovery_of_a_new_ornithopod_dinosaur_from_the_Portezuelo_Formation_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Patagonia_Argentina
Turonian-Coniacian:
Gallo et al., (2011):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667110001199
Enemies:
Giganotosaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/09/giganotosaurus-facts.html
Ekrixinatosaurus:
Time:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262222847_A_new_Abelisauridae_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_northwest_Patagonia
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Skorpiovenator:
Time:
Canale et al., (2009):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23572798_New_carnivorous_dinosaur_from_the_Late_Cretaceous_of_NW_Patagonia_and_the_evolution_of_abelisaurid_theropods
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Buitreraptor:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Baez et al., (2000) (Pg. 491, "Geological Setting"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312503089_The_earliest_known_pipoid_frog_from_South_America_A_new_genus_from_the_Middle_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
David Cannatella (2015) ("Temporal Data: Ages of Fossils and Calibration Priors," p. 20):
https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/438910
Tunik et al., (2010) ("Abstract;" pg. 270):
https://www.academia.edu/5642253/Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuqu%C3%A9n_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U_Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Di Giullo et al., (2012) (Pg. 600 "Results"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233851583_Detrital_zircon_provenance_from_the_Neuquen_Basin_south-central_Andes_Cretaceous_geodynamic_evolution_and_sedimentary_response_in_a_retroarc-foreland_basin
Unenlagia:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time (For Both Species):
Gallo et al., (2011):
Link 2 ("Abstract"):
Gualicho:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Vallati (2001) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241723727_Middle_Cretaceous_microflora_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Dinosaurian_Beds_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
List of Microflora:
https://paleobotany.ru/palynodata/publication/21442?dir=asc&order=NameSp&page=1
Vallati (2006) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240841718_Las_primeras_angiospermas_en_el_Cretacico_de_la_Cuenca_Neuquina_centro_oeste_de_Argentina_Aspectos_geologicos_relacionados
Musacchio and Vallati (2007) ("Introduction"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267692115_Late_Cretaceous_non_marine_microfossils_of_the_Plottier_Formation_Cretaceous_at_Zampal_Argentina
Link 2:
https://www.academia.edu/7770746/LATE_CRETACEOUS_NON_MARINE_MICROFOSSILS_OF_THE_PLOTTIER_FORMATION_CRETACEOUS_AT_ZAMPAL_ARGENTINA._E._Musacchio_and_P._Vallati_2007
Vallati (2013) ("Paleotropical representatives in Northern Patagonia" 1-1.2, "Conclusions"):
http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2013_L05/
Corbella et al., (2004) ("Abstract," "Characteristics and radiometric age of the tuff bed" pg. 229):
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/H_Leanza/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina/links/0f31753987fde7ee73000000/First-fission-track-age-for-the-dinosaur-bearing-Neuquen-Group-Upper-Cretaceous-Neuquen-Basin-Argentina.pdf
Link 2:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina
Spinosaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/09/spinosaurus-facts.html
Time:
Kellner et al., (2010):
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/aabc/v83n1/v83n1a06.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/09/spinosaurus-facts.html
Link 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Oxalaia is Spinosaurus:
Smyth et al., (2020):
Spent Time in Water:
Kristen Rogers (2020) ("Competing for food," p. 1):
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/29/world/spinosaurus-swimmer-discovery-scn/index.html

Thursday, November 16, 2017

Dino Bios: Patagotitan.

Patagotitan:
Time: 113-101 million years ago, Albian of the early Cretaceous period.
Place: South America.
Size: 110-157 feet (33.4-47.9 meters).
Weight: 52-62 tons.
Diet: Herbivore.

Let's talk about Patagotitan!

Description:
Patagotitan is a member of the titanosauria (Otero et al., 2020, "Systematic Paleontology"), and it was one of the largest animals to have ever walked the Earth. It lived during the Albian of the Cerro Barcino Formation, 113-101 million years ago, in South America (Carballido et al., 2017, "Systematic palaeontology": "Type locality and horizon," Figure 3) (Otero et al., 2020, "Systematic Paleontology: Locality and Horizon"). It was 110-157 feet long (33.4-47.9 meters). As for its weight, it was originally given 69 tons (Carballido et al., 2017, "Body Mass" p. 2), but Paul (2019) gave it 52 tons (pg. 339 Table 1). Otero et al., (2020) gave it 57 tons ("Abstract," "Recalculating the Body Mass of Patagotitan," "Conclusions"). Larramendi et al., (2020) gave it 56,419 kg (62 tons) to the holotype (MPEF-PV 3400) (Table 10).

Patagotitan's Time Period (Carballido et al., 2017, Figure 3):
On October 10, 2019, it was announced that sauropod dinosaurs would have had rhamphotheca, or a beak-like structure made of keratin. This beak would have protected the sauropod's teeth and kept them in place, since fossilized sauropod teeth are usually found in good condition and connected to their skulls (John Pickrell, 10/10/19) (Pickrell, 10/17/19). Interestingly, dinosaurs couldn't move their tongues (Mindy Weisberger, 2018) (ScienceDaily, 2018).

Friends:
Patagotitan lived alongside the rebbachisaurs Limaysaurus (59-68 feet; 17.9-20.8 meters) and Cathartesaura (56 feet; 17.1 meters), the titanosaurs Andesaurus (52 feet; 15.7 meters), MMCH-Pv 47 (71 feet; 21.7 meters) and Argentinosaurus (83 feet; 25.3 meters). It also coexisted with the 
ornithopod Anabisetia.

Predators:
Patagotitan's enemies consisted of Giganotosaurus (36-50 feet; 10.9-15.3 meters), the abelisaurs Ekrixinatosaurus (24 feet; 7.2 meters) and Skorpiovenator (15 feet; 4.5 meters), the dromeosaurs Buitreraptor (4 feet; 1.3 meters) and Unenlagia (8-9 feet; 2.3-2.8 meters), the neovenatorid Gualicho (24 feet; 7.2 meters), and perhaps Spinosaurus (27-55 feet; 8.1-16.8 meters). However, Spinosaurus would have preferred rivers and fish (Kristen Rogers, 2020, "Competing for food," p. 1).

Links:
Otero et al., (2020) ("Systematic Paleontology: Locality and Horizon"):

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344346605_The_appendicular_osteology_of_Patagotitan_mayorum_Dinosauria_Sauropoda

International Chronostratigraphic Chart (2020):
https://stratigraphy.org/timescale/
International Commission of Stratigraphy Website:
https://stratigraphy.org/news/130
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Weight:
Larramendi et al., (2020) (Table 10):
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.24574
Otero et al., (2020) ("Abstract," "Recalculating the Body Mass of Patagotitan," "Conclusions"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344346605_The_appendicular_osteology_of_Patagotitan_mayorum_Dinosauria_Sauropoda
Paul (2019) (Pg. 339 Table 1):
http://www.gspauldino.com/Titanomass.pdf
Carballido et al., (2017):
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/284/1860/20171219
Articles:
http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40889321
Link 2:
http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/patagotitan-mayorum-05121.html
Beak:
John Pickrell (10/10/19):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/10/giant-sauropod-dinosaurs-may-have-sported-turtlelike-beaks
John Pickrell (10/17/19):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/10/sauropods-grew-big-munching-superfoods-sturdy-beaks
Tongue:
Mindy Weisberger (2018):
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t-rex-couldnt-stick-out-its-tongue/
ScienceDaily (2018):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180620150129.htm
Friends:
Limaysaurus:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Time and Discovery:
Calvo and Salgado, (1995):
2nd Version:
Cathartesaura:
Time:
Gallina and Apesteguia (2005):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262637167_Cathartesaura_anaerobica_gen_et_sp_nov_a_new_rebbachisaurid_Dinosauria_Sauropoda_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Upper_Cretaceous_Rio_Negro_Argentina
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Andesaurus:
Time:
Casal et al., (2016) (Pg. 56 "Edad de la Formacion Bajo Barreal," pg. 57):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303598984_Ordenamiento_y_caracterizacion_faunistica_del_Cretacico_Superior_del_Grupo_Chubut_Cuenca_del_Golfo_San_Jorge_Argentina
Mannion and Calvo (2010):
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/163/1/155/2625609
Calvo and Bonaparte (1991):
https://paleoglot.org/files/Calvo&Bonaparte%201991.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/12/size-calculations-for-herbivorous.html
Argentinosaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/11/argentinosaurus-dino-bios.html
Anabisetia:
Coria and Calvo (2002) (Pg. 503):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233127594_A_new_iguanodontian_ornithopod_from_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
Vallati (2002) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287718853_Palynology_of_the_Cerro_Lisandro_Formation_lower_Dinosaurian_Beds_middle_Cretaceous_of_the_Neuquen_Basin_west-central_Argentina
Enemies:
Giganotosaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/09/giganotosaurus-facts.html
Ekrixinatosaurus:
Time:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262222847_A_new_Abelisauridae_Dinosauria_Theropoda_from_northwest_Patagonia
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Skorpiovenator:
Time:
Canale et al., (2009):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23572798_New_carnivorous_dinosaur_from_the_Late_Cretaceous_of_NW_Patagonia_and_the_evolution_of_abelisaurid_theropods
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Buitreraptor:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Baez et al., (2000) (Pg. 491, "Geological Setting"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312503089_The_earliest_known_pipoid_frog_from_South_America_A_new_genus_from_the_Middle_Cretaceous_of_Argentina
David Cannatella (2015) ("Temporal Data: Ages of Fossils and Calibration Priors," p. 20):
https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/438910
Tunik et al., (2010) ("Abstract;" pg. 270):
https://www.academia.edu/5642253/Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuqu%C3%A9n_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U_Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Link 2:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195110001642
Link 3:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248242916_Early_uplift_and_orogenic_deformation_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Constraints_on_the_Andean_uplift_from_U-Pb_and_Hf_isotopic_data_of_detrital_zircons
Di Giullo et al., (2012) (Pg. 600 "Results"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233851583_Detrital_zircon_provenance_from_the_Neuquen_Basin_south-central_Andes_Cretaceous_geodynamic_evolution_and_sedimentary_response_in_a_retroarc-foreland_basin
Unenlagia:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time (For Both Species):
Gallo et al., (2011):
Link 2 ("Abstract"):
Gualicho:
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Time:
Vallati (2001) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241723727_Middle_Cretaceous_microflora_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Dinosaurian_Beds_in_the_Neuquen_Basin_Patagonia_Argentina
List of Microflora:
https://paleobotany.ru/palynodata/publication/21442?dir=asc&order=NameSp&page=1
Vallati (2006) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240841718_Las_primeras_angiospermas_en_el_Cretacico_de_la_Cuenca_Neuquina_centro_oeste_de_Argentina_Aspectos_geologicos_relacionados
Musacchio and Vallati (2007) ("Introduction"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267692115_Late_Cretaceous_non_marine_microfossils_of_the_Plottier_Formation_Cretaceous_at_Zampal_Argentina
Link 2:
https://www.academia.edu/7770746/LATE_CRETACEOUS_NON_MARINE_MICROFOSSILS_OF_THE_PLOTTIER_FORMATION_CRETACEOUS_AT_ZAMPAL_ARGENTINA._E._Musacchio_and_P._Vallati_2007
Vallati (2013) ("Paleotropical representatives in Northern Patagonia" 1-1.2, "Conclusions"):
http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2013_L05/
Corbella et al., (2004) ("Abstract," "Characteristics and radiometric age of the tuff bed" pg. 229):
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/H_Leanza/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina/links/0f31753987fde7ee73000000/First-fission-track-age-for-the-dinosaur-bearing-Neuquen-Group-Upper-Cretaceous-Neuquen-Basin-Argentina.pdf
Link 2:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263009336_First_fission-track_age_for_the_dinosaur-bearing_Neuquen_Group_Upper_Cretaceous_Neuquen_Basin_Argentina
Spinosaurus:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/09/spinosaurus-facts.html
Time:
Kellner et al., (2010):
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/aabc/v83n1/v83n1a06.pdf
Size:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2017/09/spinosaurus-facts.html
Link 2:
https://psdinosaurs.blogspot.com/2018/10/calculations-for-largest-theropods.html
Oxalaia is Spinosaurus:
Smyth et al., (2020):
Spent Time in Water:
Kristen Rogers (2020) ("Competing for food," p. 1):
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/29/world/spinosaurus-swimmer-discovery-scn/index.html